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Upamana pramana is applied to elaborate the effect of interventions on the physiological components like [[dosha]], [[dhatu]], [[srotas]], [[mala]], [[oja]] etc. that are difficult to assess. The similes in the form of upamana pramana help decipher the mode of action and consequences of the treatment procedures. Hence to elaborate on the mechanism and importance of [[agni]] in the process of [[snehana]], the example of a piece of cloth is illustrated.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].13/96] Similar to elaborating the [[snehana]] and [[swedana]] process, the example of softening of dried timber/wood after application of oleation and sudation is explained.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].14/5] The contribution of [[basti]] in relieving the symptoms spread in the entire body is compared with the rising of the sun.[Cha.Sa.[[Siddhi Sthana]] 7/65] Similarly, the role of a physician in disease management is compared with different examples like a cook in cooking, ruler of the state etc.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].9/11,12] The selection of drugs is also based on the herb's inherent ability, for example, the use of plumbago (chitraka) in enhancing digestive abilities.
Upamana pramana is applied to elaborate the effect of interventions on the physiological components like [[dosha]], [[dhatu]], [[srotas]], [[mala]], [[oja]] etc. that are difficult to assess. The similes in the form of upamana pramana help decipher the mode of action and consequences of the treatment procedures. Hence to elaborate on the mechanism and importance of [[agni]] in the process of [[snehana]], the example of a piece of cloth is illustrated.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].13/96] Similar to elaborating the [[snehana]] and [[swedana]] process, the example of softening of dried timber/wood after application of oleation and sudation is explained.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].14/5] The contribution of [[basti]] in relieving the symptoms spread in the entire body is compared with the rising of the sun.[Cha.Sa.[[Siddhi Sthana]] 7/65] Similarly, the role of a physician in disease management is compared with different examples like a cook in cooking, ruler of the state etc.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].9/11,12] The selection of drugs is also based on the herb's inherent ability, for example, the use of plumbago (chitraka) in enhancing digestive abilities.
Similarly, the contra-indications in treatment are also expressed by giving examples like avoidance of [[shodhana]] in sama-avastha of [[dosha]].[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].3/148] Upamana pramana highlights the benefits of consumption of certain dietary and drug interventions like buttermilk (takra) in diseases like piles (arsha). Buttermilk (takra) when spilled over the soil, arrests the growth of sampling, making it capable to heal the haemorrhoids in anal region completely.[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].14/85] The mechanism of oleation ([[snehana]]) and sudation ([[swedana]]) in hiccups and dyspnea (hikka-shwasa) is also explained by quoting the example of melting ice.[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].17/72]
Similarly, the action of application of torniquet (arishtabandhana) is compared to that of a bridge to arrest the spread of poison (visha) in the body.[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].23/44] To indicate the use of milk (ksheera) in pacifying the poison (visha), the effect of rain on hot surroundings is compared.[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].24/117] The importance of specific diet pattern (sansarjana karma) in the ignition of digestive power ([[agni]]) after purification ([[shodhana]]) process is explained with the example of fire (agni) and figments (trina).[Cha.Sa.[[Siddhi Sthana]].1/12]
===Importance in teaching and learning methodology===
Sushruta samhita describes various practical approaches towards learning and teaching surgical skills. The description of yogyavidhi (simulation and demonstration in training) [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana.9/5]<ref name=Susruta/> to develop proficiency in surgical skills. The appearance and design of various surgical instruments (yantra and shashtra) is also based on the upamana pramana for understanding their applications.[Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana.7]<ref name=Susruta/>, [Su.Sa. Sutra Sthana 8]<ref name=Susruta/> Contemporary medical science accepts the application of analogy for the processes of learning, naming, remembering diseases.<ref>Pena GP, Andrade-Filho Jde S. Analogies in medicine: valuable for learning, reasoning, remembering and naming. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2010 Oct;15(4):609-19. doi: 10.1007/s10459-008-9126-2. Epub 2008 Jun 5. PMID: 18528776.</ref> The research has proved the relation between analogical knowledge and cognition along with different areas of brain.<ref>Bunge S, Analogical Reasoning and Prefrontal Cortex: Evidence for Separable Retrieval and Integration Mechanisms, Cerebral Cortex, Volume 15, Issue 3, March 2005, Pages 239–249, https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhh126</ref> Analogies contribute to meaningful learning and the visualisation of the facts. It is a tool for pedagogical learning for the application of knowledge.<ref>Harrison A.G., Treagust D.F. (2006) Teaching and Learning with Analogies. In: Aubusson P.J., Harrison A.G., Ritchie S.M. (eds) Metaphor and Analogy in Science Education. Science & Technology Education Library, vol 30. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3830-5_2</ref>
===Utility in contemporary science===
The medical science incorporated the principles of analogy to describe the different signs and symptoms of diseases rightfully. Many standard textbooks contain metaphors to explain the context. These are essential for medical teaching, clinical practice, memory-based learning; hence are vital for learning medical science. The simile of grapes is used to describe the different conditions like a hydatiform mole, tumors, active pulmonary tuberculosis appearance. The nomenclature of different diseases according to the similarities in appearance like snowstorm cataract, honeycomb liver, cobblestone appearance of body surfaces are examples of analogies. Many pathognomonic signs like strawberry tongue in Kawasaki disease, rose spots in typhoid, swan neck like deformity in rheumatoid arthritis, stepladder fever in malaria, moon facies in Cushing’s disease, rice water like stools in cholera help in the precise diagnosis of the pathology.
==Philosophical and other examples in Charak Samhita==
Some references to different upamana mentioned in the [[Charaka Samhita]] are as below.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table 3. Examples of upamana pramana
|-
! Entity / Phenomena !! Upama given !! Rationale !! Reference
|-
| | Mind ([[sattva]]), soul ([[atma]]), body (shareera) || tripod (tridanda) || Substratum for the existence of the being|| Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].1/46
|-
| | Medicine ([[aushadha]])|| nectar (amrita), poison (visha), fire (agni), lightening (ashani) || If properly prescribed, the medicine can act as elixir, while improper administration can be fatal as poison. [[Aushadha]] is also compared with fire and lightning as utmost care should be taken during its administration. || Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].1/124, 126]
|-
| | Benefits of collyrium ([[anjana]]) || moon in clear sky (nabhasi-induvata)|| Administration of [[anjana]] makes the vision and eye like a moon in a clear sky.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].5/19]
|-
| | Importance of swasthavritta and dinacharyavidhi || King of city, charioteer of chariot || The wise should take care of his/her body like an administrator takes care of their province.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].5/103]
|-
| | Harmful effects of excessive exercise (ati-vyayam) || Lion trying to drag an elephant || The body will perish with stress caused by excessive exercise, just as a lion in a powerful position perishes while trying to drag an elephant with higher strength.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].7/35]
|-
| | Importance of physician (bhishak) || Physician has been given the upama like cook, ruler , potter || As tasks like cooking food, ruling over a nation, preparing a pot are impossible without the cook, ruler, and potter despite all the tools. Physician (bhishak) is the most important entity in carrying out any task||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].9/11, 13]
|-
| | Importance of scientific study and logic (shastra dnyana and yukti) || Shastra is compared with Illuminating light, while the yukti or logic of the physician is compared with vision ||Scientific scriptures provide light for illumination, and one’s intellect is like eyes. The physician who uses both is capable of successful treatment.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].9/24]
|-
| | Description of anumana pramana || fire and smoke (dhooma and vanhi), sexual act and pregnancy (garbha and maithuna) || The examples of smoke (dhooma) and fire (vanhi) are used to describe the inferential knowledge regarding commonly occurring phenomena, while product of conception (garbha) and sexual act (maithuna) denote the inference regarding the happening of the past.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].11/22]
|-
| | Description of yukti pramana || process of farming (sasya-sambhava) conception (garbha-sambhava)||The examples of a process of farming and conception as these are multifactorial phenomena.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].11/23-24]
|-
| | Trayopastambha- Aahara, Nidra ,Bramhacharya || Three pillars of sustenance ||The aahara i.e., food, nidra or sleep and bramhacharya i.e. proper sexual conduct, are considered as pillars of smooth functioning of life. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].11/35]
|-
| | Description of [[Vata dosha]] || Various synonyms like yama , prajapati ||The synonyms are exemplarily explaining the qualities and functions of [[vata dosha]]. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].12/9]
|-
| | Importance of [[shodhana]] || [[Dosha]] are compared with plants (druma) || To underline the importance and effect of [[shodhana]] therapy in which the vitiated [[tridosha]] are compared with a tree whose roots need to uprooted to weaken the tree.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].16/21]
|-
| | Description of [[ojas]] || colour similar to ghee (sarpivarna), smells like rice flakes (laja gandhi), honey (madhu)|| The ghee (sarpi) and rice flakes (laja) help to denote the characteristics of [[ojas]] while the simile of honey (madhu) is representative of rasa or chemical composition of the same.|| [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].17/75]
|-
| | Description of symptoms of conditions like shotha || pricking pain (suchibhirevatudyate), feeling similar to crawling of ants over the body (pippilikasancharanavatpeeda)|| Different examples are given to assess the nature and intensity of pain. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].18/7]
|-
| | Manifestation of endogenous diseases primarily due to vitiation of [[tridosha]] (Nija vyadhi)|| bird (Shakuni) || Here there is mention of a bird to denote the preponderance of [[dosha]] vitiation in any disease depicting the fact that bird cannot infringe upon its own shadow.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].19/3]
|-
|-| Morphology of obese individual (sthoulya) || pig (varaha)||The term varaha is used to denote the appearance of the obese individual (sthula vyakti)||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].21/34]
|-
| | Qualities of blood ([[rakta]])|| gold (suvarna), indragopa (insect), lotus (padma), abrus seeds (gunja) ||These similes are mentioned in order to denote the qualities of pure blood.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].24/22]
|-
| | Description of quacks || snakes who are hungry for prey (sarpatepeetamaruta) || One must avoid getting treated by quacks as this can be as dangerous as dealing with snakes hungry for prey.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].29/12]
|-
| | Description of heart || central beam supporting the framework of roof (gopanasiagarakarnika)||The heart houses the important entities in the body just as the central beam supports the entire framework of the roof and house.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].30/5]
|-
| | Ghritapana in jeerna-jwara || sprinkling water over burning house (veshmavaarisechana)||Just as water is sprinkled over the burning house to calm the fire, ghrita is administered in chronic fever (jeerna jwara) to pacify the condition.||Cha.Sa.[[Nidana Sthana]].3/37]
|-
| | Appearance of urine (mutra) in prameha || gravel like urine (sikatameha), thread like urine (alalameha)||The pathology of abnormal urination (mutra pravritti) is described with the help of different upamana and illustrations depicting the appearance of urine (mutra).||[Cha.Sa.[[Nidana Sthana]].4]
|-
| | Aetiological factors of prameha || attraction of birds towards their nests (needa-drumaandaja) || The aetiological factors like lethargy (manda-utsaha), unctuous diet (atisnigdhaaahara) are responsible for the attraction of prameha in an individual just as the birds are attracted to their nests.||[Cha.Sa.[[Nidana Sthana]] 4/50]
|-
| | Types of apatarpana chikitsa || [[Langhana]] is compared with a small quantity of water exposed to the sun and wind dries up.
Langhana-pachana with sink that is acted upon by the sun and wind on the one hand, and by a sprinkling of dust and ashes on the other side
Doshavasechana with overflowing of a pool|| Different upamana pertaining to pool, lake, and water are compared with levels of severity of the [[dosha]] and their management with varying kinds of modalities like [[langhana]], langhana-pachana and doshavasechana.||[Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]].3/45]
|-
| | Nomenclature of krimi || similar to fig (Audumbaraakriti), similar to worm (gandupadakriti), similar to threads of wool (urnanshusankasha) ||The nomenclature of krimi is based on the similarity of appearance of different krimi in the body.||[Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]].7]
|-
| | Characteristic feature of shukrasaarata || milky white eyes (Ksheera-poornaivalochana) || The milky white eyes is used to describe the appearance of eyes in shukrasaara individual ||[Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]].8/109]
|-
| | Importance of dhatu-saarata || small ants carrying a big load (Pippilikabharaharanavat) || The importance of dhaatusarata in determining bala in an individual is denoted by the term pippilikabharaharanavat siddhi. The capability of a person depends on the quality of [[dhatu]] in person irrespective of body type. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]].8/115]
|-
| | Importance of yukti || seed for farm (beejamevakarshakasya) || Yukti is the guiding force for any physician in the process of decision-making like seeds for a farmer.||[Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]].8/149]
|-
| | Importance of [[atma]] ||potter (Kumbhakara), mason (grihakara)||The [[atma]] is the driving force of body and is as important as the kumbhakara or potter in preparation of pot and grihakara or mason in building a house.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]].1/43-44] [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]].1/74]
|-
| |Trishna as dukkhakarana || silk (koshakara)|| Just as a silkworm provides for itself suicidal threads, the individual who is unaware of trishna gets succumbs to dukkha.||[Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]].1/93]
|-
| | Embryo (garbha) as a resultant of multiple factors || house (kutagara), chariot ||Just as many objects are involved in the construction of houses and chariots, embryo (garbha) is the resultant of multiple factors ||[Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]].3/14]
|-
| | Description of manas prakriti || Brahma sattva, sarpasattva, vanaspatya sattva ||The determinants of manas prakriti are based on the examples like snake (sarpa) , tree (vanaspatya) ||[Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]].4/36]
|-
| | Appearance of organs of foetus (garbhaavayaya)|| palms of new-born similar to shape of tortoise (Kurmakara hasta) ||In a healthy infant, the palms of the new-born should be shaped like a turtle. ||Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]].8/51]
|-
| | Description of voice (swara) || swan (Hansa), stark (krauncha) ||The normal and abnormal swara or voices are compared with different animals and objects to understand the quality and intensity of the voice. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]].1/14]
|-
| | Description of abnormal odour (vikrita gandha)|| sandal (Chandana), dead body (kunapa)|| The normal and abnormal odour (gandha) from the body are expressed using different examples like sandal||[Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]]. 2/8-16]
|-
| | Appearance of lips (austha) || ripened jambu fruit (pakvajambunibha) ||The appearance of the lips in a person about to die are similar to ripened jambu fruit ||[Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]].3/6]
|-
| | [[Arishta]] related to eye (chakshurendriya) || solid sky (ghanibhoota akasha) || The different upama are used to denote the appearance of the sky for the person about to die||[Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]].4/7-9]
|-
| | Description of complexion and lustre (chaya) || similar to gem like cats eye (Vaiduryadrishti) ||The shadow (chhaya) due to [[jala mahabhuta]] is similar to gem like cats eye. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]].7/12]
|-
| | Signs of impending death (sadyamarana) || teeth as if covered with mud (kardamavatadanta) ||Different signs like the appearance of teeth as if they are covered with mud depict the impending death. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]].10/29]
|-
| |Importance of aphrodisiac treatment ([[vajikarana]]) || comparable to horse (vajivata), huge tree (mahachaitya) ||[[Vajikarana]] renders the individual with the vitality and sexual drive similar to that of a horse. It is also responsible for the fertility or the advancement of pedigree like the growth of trees (mahachaitya). ||[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].1/9-12]
|-
| | Benefits of consuming different [[rasayana]] herbs || glow like a sun (aditya-samadyuti), stability of the body (dharanidharasaara), nectar (amrita) ||Consumption of different [[rasayana]] combinations can render different advantages like glow like the Sun, stability of body etc. are expressed through various examples mentioned before.||[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].1]
|-
| |Types of shilajatu || like the feathers of peacock (Mayurpicchasama), similar to hibiscus (Japapushpasama), similar to cows urine (Gomutragandhi) ||The appearance of different types of shilajatu is compared with objects like mayur-piccha or peacock feathers etc.||[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].1/3/56-61]
|-
| | Description of semen ([[shukra]]) and its expression || Sugar in ikshu, ghee in curd, taila in sesame seeds.||Different examples like the juice exist in the sugarcane, ghee in the curd, and oil exists in the sesame seed, semen pervades the entire body, which has the sensation of touch. This [[shukra]] is expressed at the right time, just as the ghee melts when in proximity to the heat. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 2/46], [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].15/35]
|-
| |Description of process of digestion according to [[Ayurveda]] || cooking of rice in an utensil (odana pachana)|| The process of digestion of food is explained by comparing it with the cooking of rice in utensils where the heat is applied to the base of utensil. Here the heat is compared with jatharagni while the utensil is amashaya or digestive tract. ||[[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].15/8]
|-
| |Explanation of functioning of heart (hridaya) || lotus (pundarika)|| The body's functioning is more smooth during the day, just as the lotus blossoms with the rise of the day. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].15/238]
|-
| | Description of alcohol (madya) || Madya is compared with anna (food) || Madya is compared with anna as both of these can have beneficial and harmful effects if not used rationally. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].24/59]
|-
| | Description of menstrual blood ([[artava]]) || abrus seeds (Gunjaphalasavarna), lotus (padmasama), insect (indragopasama) ||The colour , quality of pure menstrual blood (shuddhaartava) are described by the nouns like abrus (gunja) etc. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].30/226]
|-
| |Description of madhyamapaaka || like a soft porridge (Sanyavaivaniryava) || The madhyamapaaka of taila is compared with porridge like consistency||[Cha.Sa.[[Kalpa Sthana]].12/103]
|-
| | Importance of niruha basti || cloth (Pata) || Niruha eliminates the disease from the body just as a cloth removes the dirt when mixed with water||[Cha.Sa.[[Siddhi Sthana]].7/65]
| |Description of three [[marma]] || axles of wheel (Nabyamivaamara), rays of sun (suryamivagabhastaya) , udadhievaapaganam ||The three marma namely hridaya, shira and basti function like axles of wheel , rays of sun , rivers flowing into the ocean, respectively. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Siddhi Sthana]].9/5]
|-
| |Importance of taking care of patient post the [[shodhana]] therapy||unfertilized egg (Tarunaanda), utensil filled with oil (poornataila-patra), shepherd (gopala) || After the administration of [[shodhana]] therapy in patients, proper care of patient should be taken as the condition of the patient is as delicate as a raw, unfertilized egg, utensil filled with oil or the way a shepherd takes care of one’s herd. ||[Cha.Sa.[[Siddhi Sthana]].12/5]
|-
| | Description of [[tantrayukti]] || lotus lake (Ambujavana), lightened lamp || The [[tantrayukti]] throws light upon the subject and helps to understand its hidden meaning, just as the lotus blossoms on the rise of the sun or a room becomes lit after the lamp is lightened. ||[Cha.Sa. [[Siddhi Sthana]].12/46]
|}
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