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Line 751: − + − • Three basic desires to be fulfilled are: Praneshana [desire for life], Dhaneshana [desire for wealth (livelihood)], Paralokeshana [desire for the other world (after death)]. [3]+ − • There is very limited scope for direct perception of everything. The scope of indirect knowledge is very vast. [7]+ − • Consciousness is without any beginning. Being eternal, it cannot be created by any other thing. Creation of body by the absolute atman (supreme soul) is acceptable view. [13]+ − • All the worldly objects can be divided into two categories, truth/existence and false/non-existence. There are four methods of examination- scripts or texts (words of persons with high intellect or sages), direct perception (direct observance), inference and reasoning. [17]+ − • Apta [authority], who are enlightened and knowledgeable are absolutely free from the rajas and tamas (psychological doshas). [18-19]+ − • The interconnection of soul, sense objects, mind and intellect is very important for knowledge by direct perception. [20]+ − • Reasoning shall be based on decision made by intellect based upon combination of multiple factors, valid for past, present and future. [25]+ − • Rebirth theory can be proved based on the scriptural evidences, perception, inference and reasoning. + − • Treatment of psychological diseases includes following the conduct related to dharma (virtue/eternal duty), artha (wealth) and kama (desire), serving persons who are having knowledge of psychological diseases and follow their instructions, and obtaining the knowledge about self. [47] + − • Three important types of treatment modalities are daivavyapashraya (divine or spiritual therapy), yuktivyapashraya (therapy based on reasoning) and sattvavajaya (psychotherapy). Daivavyapasharaya includes mantras chanting, medicine, wearing gems, auspicious offerings, oblations, gifts, offerings to sacred fire, following spiritual rules, atonement, fasting, chanting of auspicious hymns, obeisance to gods, visit to holy places, etc. Yuktivyapashyraya includes proper dietetic regimen, medicine planning. Sattvavajaya is withdrawal of mind from harmful objects. [54]+ + Line 799:
Line 800: + + − Vidhi vimarsha: − Human being is most intelligent of all the living beings on this earth. After satisfying the basic needs for living i.e. food, clothing, shelter etc. humans tried to find out the reason behind their birth and what are the goals to be achieved in this life. The results of the search lead to the origin of ‘Philosophy’ to find the answer and to find solutions to the worldly sorrows. Animals eat, drink, reproduce and die, but humans are not like animals, they live in society, they have various duties to perform. To set the moral, social duties and also code of conduct to live in society, religion was developed, all the things exist in this world are respected, energies were worshiped and given extreme importance, many ancient scriptures were written which taught the way of leading life. + − + + + + − -Three qualities or guna of mind: Sattva, rajas and tamas+ − -Three layers of nature: Light, fire, and darkness+ − -Three states of being: Immanent, transcendent, and the absolute+ − -Three divisions of time: Past, present, and future+ − -Three periods of day: Morning, noon, and evening+ − -Three worlds: Bhuh (earth), bhuvah (atmosphere), and swahah (heaven)+ − -Three phases of life: Childhood, adulthood, and old age+ − -Three paths of self-realization: Jnana (path of knowledge), bhakti (path of love or devotion), and karma (path of action)+ − -Types of breath: Puraka (inhalation), kumbhaka (retention), and rechaka (exhalation)+ − -Three steps of Vishnu in Vamanavatar (or in his Vamana incarnation)+ − -Three syllables of AUM, the sacred vedic symbol representing three states of consciousness, possessing three hidden sounds that represent the primordial sound waves that predated the creation of the universe. A detailed study of Aum( ) is available in the Mandukya Upanishad+ − -Three duties of the brahmin: Worship of the deity, study of the vedas, and the giving of charity+ − -Triple control: thoughts, words, and deed+ − -Three lines of sacred ash worn by shaivites (or the followers of Shiva) on their foreheads+ − + − ➢ Three types of Shariras or bodies: Sthula-sharira (gross physical body), sukshma or linga-sharira (subtle body), karana-sharira (causal body). + − ➢ The threefold nature of atman or brahman: Sat (Truth/Existence), chit (Consciousness), ananda (bliss). + − ➢ Three granthis or knots of the heart: Avidya (ignorance), kama (desire), and karma (action). + − ➢ Three defects of the jiva are: Mala (impurities), vikshepa (distraction), avarana (veil of ignorance). + − ➢ Three gunas or qualities of prakriti: Sattva (purity), rajas (activity), tamas (darkness).+ − ➢ Three types of karmas: Sanchita (accumulated), prarabdha (originated), agami (future).+ − ➢ Bhedas or differences are three: Svagata (individual), svajatiya (in own society), vijatiya (different society).+ − ➢ Three Tapaas: Adhidaivika, adhibhautika, adhyatmika+ − ➢ Three prasthanas or the regulated texts of vedantaee: Upanishads (shruti), Brahmasutras (nyaya), Bhagavad-Gita (smriti). + − ➢ Three eshanas or desires: Daraishana (desire for wife), putraishana (desire for son), vittaishana (desire for wealth). + − ➢ Three fold vikshepa-shakti: Kriyashakti (will to act), ichhashakti (will power), jnanashakti (power of knowledge)+ − ➢ Three satta or existence is of varieties: Paramarthika (absolutely real), vyavaharika (phenomenal), pratibhasika (apparent or illusory).+ − ➢ Three fold nature of the cosmic (samashti) person (ishvara): Virat, hiranyagarbha, ishvara. + − ➢ Three fold nature of the individual (Vyasmi) person (jiva): Vishva, taijasa, prajna. + + + + + − In Vedanta, aeshanas or desires are three: Daraishana (desire for wife), putraishana (desire for son), and vittaishana (desire for wealth).[5] As societies evolved, the institution of marriage was created, with the primary purpose of formalizing the union of man and woman. To further the growth of societies, a desire to get an ideal wife who could manage homes and give birth to healthy and able children became an important objective of any household. After the development of religious consciousness, marriage was not only became a social need but also an eternal duty of every individual. In Hinduism, marriage is regarded as a religious sacrament in which a man and a woman are bound with permanent relationship for physical, social, and spiritual purposes of dharma, procreation and sexual pleasure. When the theory regarding “three debts” evolved- first to god, second to sages and saints, and third to ancestors – the institution of marriage gained even greater importance and sanctity, since it was through marriage, through the process of jointly raising the family in accordance with moral and ethical principles, that one could repay the “debt to ancestors”. Marriage is regarded as a sacrifice, per vedic traditions, and a person who does not marry is said to be “one without sacrifice.” Taittiriya Brahmana says, “Person who does not have wife is without sacrifice.” A married life is considered essential for the growth of an individual’s personality. Upanishad had established the ashram theory that institutionalized four ashrams or phases in an individual’s life, to be followed in a sequential manner- Bramhacharya (life as a celibate student), Grahastha (life as a married person and fulfilling all social and moral responsibilities expected of a householder), Vanaprastha (transitory phase to a life of spirituality, involving renunciation of material comfort (artha) and physical desires (kama)) and finally, Sanyasa (phase of pursuing spiritual goals through abandonment of social connections to family and other institutions. During the Smriti phase of Vedic history, the ashram system was believed to have been divinely ordained, and it was thought to have been a sacred duty of every person to respect it. Smritis highly praise the life of a grahastha, regarding it as central to the whole social structure. In this phase, the society, in general, supported the three ashrams by means of knowledge, food and money. + + + − + − Chakrapani [11] raised a question, “Why is ‘kamaeshana’ not mentioned?”. However, he goes on to give an explanation to this exclusion himself, writing that ‘kamaeshana’ can be considered as an implicit activity in one’s pursuit of pranaeshana and dhanaeshana. Since a person instinctively indulges in ‘kama’, there is no need to explain it separately. + + − + + + − + + − + + + − 1. Prakopana-hetu (etiological factors of the disease) + − 2. Yoni-doshas involved.+ − 3. Utthana-mode of manifestation+ − 4. Atma-nature of disease (seriousness or acuteness)+ − 5. Adhisthana-Location in organs of body & mind+ − 6. Vedana-Type of pain + − 7. Sansthana-Symptoms + − 8. Shabda, sparsha, rupa, rasa, gandha- Association with specific sounds, touch, colour, taste or smell+ − 9. Upadrava-Complications+ − 10. Vriddhi, sthana & kshaya-Symptoms of aggravation, normalcy and alleviations+ − 11. Udarka-prognosis + − 12. Nama- Names of diseases+ − 13. Yoga-Concomitants / prescribed medicines+ − 14. Pratikara, pravrutti and nivrutti- Prescriptions & prohibitions in the treatment.+ − + + + + − + + + − 1. Shrota pratyaksha (auscultation / percussion)+ − + − 1. Antrakujana- gurgling sound from intestines+ − 2. Sandhisphutana anguliparvana- cracking sounds in joints, including small joints.+ − 3. Swaravishesha-voice of the patient+ − 4. Shariropagata shabda-specific sounds of patient, like coughing, hiccup etc.+ + + − 3. Darshan pratyaksha (visual inspection)+ + + − 1. Varna (colour, complexion, or lustre), sansthana (shape), and pramana (measurements), + − 2. Normal and abnormal appearance of body and organs,+ − 3. Whatever else not mentioned here but could be visually observed.+ + − 3. Rasapariksha (gustation-by inference)+ +
→Summary
Tattva Vimarsha:
=== Tattva Vimarsha ===
* Three basic desires to be fulfilled are: Praneshana [desire for life], Dhaneshana [desire for wealth (livelihood)], Paralokeshana [desire for the other world (after death)]. [3]
* There is very limited scope for direct perception of everything. The scope of indirect knowledge is very vast. [7]
* Consciousness is without any beginning. Being eternal, it cannot be created by any other thing. Creation of body by the absolute atman (supreme soul) is acceptable view. [13]
* All the worldly objects can be divided into two categories, truth/existence and false/non-existence. There are four methods of examination- scripts or texts (words of persons with high intellect or sages), direct perception (direct observance), inference and reasoning. [17]
* Apta [authority], who are enlightened and knowledgeable are absolutely free from the rajas and tamas (psychological doshas). [18-19]
* The interconnection of soul, sense objects, mind and intellect is very important for knowledge by direct perception. [20]
* Reasoning shall be based on decision made by intellect based upon combination of multiple factors, valid for past, present and future. [25]
* Rebirth theory can be proved based on the scriptural evidences, perception, inference and reasoning.
* Treatment of psychological diseases includes following the conduct related to dharma (virtue/eternal duty), artha (wealth) and kama (desire), serving persons who are having knowledge of psychological diseases and follow their instructions, and obtaining the knowledge about self. [47]
* Three important types of treatment modalities are daivavyapashraya (divine or spiritual therapy), yuktivyapashraya (therapy based on reasoning) and sattvavajaya (psychotherapy). Daivavyapasharaya includes mantras chanting, medicine, wearing gems, auspicious offerings, oblations, gifts, offerings to sacred fire, following spiritual rules, atonement, fasting, chanting of auspicious hymns, obeisance to gods, visit to holy places, etc. Yuktivyapashyraya includes proper dietetic regimen, medicine planning. Sattvavajaya is withdrawal of mind from harmful objects. [54]
The zest of the various important topics discussed in this chapter is as follows.
The zest of the various important topics discussed in this chapter is as follows.
Table 1: Three types of various factors:
Table 1: Three types of various factors:
3. Shastrapranidhan (surgical procedures)
3. Shastrapranidhan (surgical procedures)
=== Vidhi vimarsha ===
Human being is most intelligent of all the living beings on this earth. After satisfying the basic needs for living i.e. food, clothing, shelter etc. humans tried to find out the reason behind their birth and what are the goals to be achieved in this life. The results of the search lead to the origin of ‘Philosophy’ to find the answer and to find solutions to the worldly sorrows. Animals eat, drink, reproduce and die, but humans are not like animals, they live in society, they have various duties to perform. To set the moral, social duties and also code of conduct to live in society, religion was developed, all the things exist in this world are respected, energies were worshiped and given extreme importance, many ancient scriptures were written which taught the way of leading life.
The desires in human life were recognized and the modes to fulfillment were determined. The present chapter describes about three basic pursuits of life; these are to live long, to earn wealth and attainment of happiness in next world. Longevity can be achieved by following healthy lifestyle, desire for earning may be fulfilled by adopting appropriate and rightful means of livelihood, various spiritual acts and good deeds for the society are to be performed to fulfill the third desire to get happiness in after life. The main ‘tatva’ of this chapter are the three desires and rest of the ‘tatvas’ are mentioned to support for achievement of these desires.
The desires in human life were recognized and the modes to fulfillment were determined. The present chapter describes about three basic pursuits of life; these are to live long, to earn wealth and attainment of happiness in next world. Longevity can be achieved by following healthy lifestyle, desire for earning may be fulfilled by adopting appropriate and rightful means of livelihood, various spiritual acts and good deeds for the society are to be performed to fulfill the third desire to get happiness in after life. The main ‘tatva’ of this chapter are the three desires and rest of the ‘tatvas’ are mentioned to support for achievement of these desires.
To maintain health, triad of upasthambha (supporting pillars) are advised, if the upasthambhas are properly followed then one is bestowed with good physical strength, the triad of balas (strength) is mentioned. If someone is involved in nidana sevana (exposure to etiological factors) diseases will occur, so the triad of causative factors is explained, these factors may lead to diseases which are again of three types. These diseases manifest in body by three routes, to cure the diseases physician is necessary, so to check best of physicians three types of physicians are described. When good physician is selected, he will try to cure the disease by the means of various therapies, which are of three types, when the bodily doshas get vitiated and cause diseases, then, three types of therapies can be done to cure those diseases is explained. In this manner every factor described in this chapter is interrelated with each other.
To maintain health, triad of upasthambha (supporting pillars) are advised, if the upasthambhas are properly followed then one is bestowed with good physical strength, the triad of balas (strength) is mentioned. If someone is involved in nidana sevana (exposure to etiological factors) diseases will occur, so the triad of causative factors is explained, these factors may lead to diseases which are again of three types. These diseases manifest in body by three routes, to cure the diseases physician is necessary, so to check best of physicians three types of physicians are described. When good physician is selected, he will try to cure the disease by the means of various therapies, which are of three types, when the bodily doshas get vitiated and cause diseases, then, three types of therapies can be done to cure those diseases is explained. In this manner every factor described in this chapter is interrelated with each other.
Ayurveda is the art and science of life, it is astika darshana (believes in God). It is believed that human life is blessed and it is bestowed as a result of good deeds in many past lives. It is essential for humans to get involved in good deeds so that the life will be happier. The present chapter discusses the desires to be fulfilled in present birth and to achieve good life in next world after death. This chapter is designated as “Tisraeshaniya adhyaya”[1], (Tisra+ Eshana+Cha), the word tisraieshana is formed by the union of tisra+ aeshana. It begins with the description about three ‘aeshanas’ or pursuits of life, longevity, acquiring wealth and happiness in next world. ‘eshantye anevishante eti aeshana= echha’ [2] one which is searched and has some initiation. [3] [4]
Ayurveda is the art and science of life, it is astika darshana (believes in God). It is believed that human life is blessed and it is bestowed as a result of good deeds in many past lives. It is essential for humans to get involved in good deeds so that the life will be happier. The present chapter discusses the desires to be fulfilled in present birth and to achieve good life in next world after death. This chapter is designated as “Tisraeshaniya adhyaya”[1], (Tisra+ Eshana+Cha), the word tisraieshana is formed by the union of tisra+ aeshana. It begins with the description about three ‘aeshanas’ or pursuits of life, longevity, acquiring wealth and happiness in next world. ‘eshantye anevishante eti aeshana= echha’ [2] one which is searched and has some initiation. [3] [4]
Importance of Three:
==== Importance of Three ====
The concept of the triad or trinity can be found throughout the world in all dimensions of life and been in use across civilizations and cultures since time immemorial. It can be understood as a key to the integrity and interdependence of all existence. The ideas of concepts of three can found in philosophy, mathematics, physics, etc. in ancient as well as modern times.
The concept of the triad or trinity can be found throughout the world in all dimensions of life and been in use across civilizations and cultures since time immemorial. It can be understood as a key to the integrity and interdependence of all existence. The ideas of concepts of three can found in philosophy, mathematics, physics, etc. in ancient as well as modern times.
In Hinduism, the number three has great importance in religious studies as well as in rituals and various vedic texts since the number symbolizes the Holy Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva (or Mahesh) and their associated powers (also considered the universal order) of creation, preservation, and destruction respectively. From the viewpoint of creation, one is God, the second is prakriti, and together they manifest the rest of the creation. The triad or trinity also symbolizes the unity of body, mind and spirit. Number three is referenced very frequently, and the various triads described in vedic texts include:
In Hinduism, the number three has great importance in religious studies as well as in rituals and various vedic texts since the number symbolizes the Holy Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva (or Mahesh) and their associated powers (also considered the universal order) of creation, preservation, and destruction respectively. From the viewpoint of creation, one is God, the second is prakriti, and together they manifest the rest of the creation. The triad or trinity also symbolizes the unity of body, mind and spirit. Number three is referenced very frequently, and the various triads described in vedic texts include:
* Three qualities or guna of mind: Sattva, rajas and tamas
* Three layers of nature: Light, fire, and darkness
* Three states of being: Immanent, transcendent, and the absolute
* Three divisions of time: Past, present, and future
* Three periods of day: Morning, noon, and evening
* Three worlds: Bhuh (earth), bhuvah (atmosphere), and swahah (heaven)
* Three phases of life: Childhood, adulthood, and old age
* Three paths of self-realization: Jnana (path of knowledge), bhakti (path of love or devotion), and karma (path of action)
* Types of breath: Puraka (inhalation), kumbhaka (retention), and rechaka (exhalation)
* Three steps of Vishnu in Vamanavatar (or in his Vamana incarnation)
* Three syllables of AUM, the sacred vedic symbol representing three states of consciousness, possessing three hidden sounds that represent the primordial sound waves that predated the creation of the universe. A detailed study of Aum( ) is available in the Mandukya Upanishad
* Three duties of the brahmin: Worship of the deity, study of the vedas, and the giving of charity
* Triple control: thoughts, words, and deed
Categories of three mentioned in Vedanta [6]
* Three lines of sacred ash worn by shaivites (or the followers of Shiva) on their foreheads
==== Categories of three mentioned in Vedanta ====
* Three types of Shariras or bodies: Sthula-sharira (gross physical body), sukshma or linga-sharira (subtle body), karana-sharira (causal body).
* The threefold nature of atman or brahman: Sat (Truth/Existence), chit (Consciousness), ananda (bliss).
* Three granthis or knots of the heart: Avidya (ignorance), kama (desire), and karma (action).
* Three defects of the jiva are: Mala (impurities), vikshepa (distraction), avarana (veil of ignorance).
* Three gunas or qualities of prakriti: Sattva (purity), rajas (activity), tamas (darkness).
* Three types of karmas: Sanchita (accumulated), prarabdha (originated), agami (future).
* Bhedas or differences are three: Svagata (individual), svajatiya (in own society), vijatiya (different society).
* Three Tapaas: Adhidaivika, adhibhautika, adhyatmika
* Three prasthanas or the regulated texts of vedantaee: Upanishads (shruti), Brahmasutras (nyaya), Bhagavad-Gita (smriti).
* Three eshanas or desires: Daraishana (desire for wife), putraishana (desire for son), vittaishana (desire for wealth).
* Three fold vikshepa-shakti: Kriyashakti (will to act), ichhashakti (will power), jnanashakti (power of knowledge)
* Three satta or existence is of varieties: Paramarthika (absolutely real), vyavaharika (phenomenal), pratibhasika (apparent or illusory).
* Three fold nature of the cosmic (samashti) person (ishvara): Virat, hiranyagarbha, ishvara.
* Three fold nature of the individual (Vyasmi) person (jiva): Vishva, taijasa, prajna.
In geometry, two straight lines cannot possibly enclose any space or form a plane figure. Neither can two plane surfaces form a solid. Three lines are necessary to form a plane figure, and three dimensions of length, breadth, and height, are necessary to form a solid (a cube, for instance). Three, therefore, stands for that which is solid, real, substantial, complete, and entire. [7]
In geometry, two straight lines cannot possibly enclose any space or form a plane figure. Neither can two plane surfaces form a solid. Three lines are necessary to form a plane figure, and three dimensions of length, breadth, and height, are necessary to form a solid (a cube, for instance). Three, therefore, stands for that which is solid, real, substantial, complete, and entire. [7]
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (B. U. 4/4/22) states three aeshanas or desires of a person from a social context: ‘Putraeshana (desire to have son), vittaeshana (to earn) and lokaeshana’(recognition by society).[8] Vedic traditions are patriarchal, where the first desire of a married person is to have a son. The son gets the family name and the tradition passes down through all future generations. The son is also supposed to do all the religious rituals after the death of a person. Ancient societies were primarily agrarian and relied on physical strength, which necessitated the presence of male children in a family. Thus, the desire for son could be justified.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (B. U. 4/4/22) states three aeshanas or desires of a person from a social context: ‘Putraeshana (desire to have son), vittaeshana (to earn) and lokaeshana’(recognition by society).[8] Vedic traditions are patriarchal, where the first desire of a married person is to have a son. The son gets the family name and the tradition passes down through all future generations. The son is also supposed to do all the religious rituals after the death of a person. Ancient societies were primarily agrarian and relied on physical strength, which necessitated the presence of male children in a family. Thus, the desire for son could be justified.
The second desire is to earn, since wealth is required to maintain a healthy lifestyle, perform spiritual rituals, as well as give alms – an important aspect of vedic traditions. A wealthy person is respected in society.
The second desire is to earn, since wealth is required to maintain a healthy lifestyle, perform spiritual rituals, as well as give alms – an important aspect of vedic traditions. A wealthy person is respected in society.
The third desire is lokaeshana, or the desire for recognition in society. To get respect and happiness in this world, one should societal traditions and rules laid down for the self and for one’s conduct within the community, maintaining harmony with others, including with animals and the environment. One has to follow the path of eternal duty to keep pace with the rest of the world.
The third desire is lokaeshana, or the desire for recognition in society. To get respect and happiness in this world, one should societal traditions and rules laid down for the self and for one’s conduct within the community, maintaining harmony with others, including with animals and the environment. One has to follow the path of eternal duty to keep pace with the rest of the world.
In Vedanta, aeshanas or desires are three: Daraishana (desire for wife), putraishana (desire for son), and vittaishana (desire for wealth).[5] As societies evolved, the institution of marriage was created, with the primary purpose of formalizing the union of man and woman. To further the growth of societies, a desire to get an ideal wife who could manage homes and give birth to healthy and able children became an important objective of any household. After the development of religious consciousness, marriage was not only became a social need but also an eternal duty of every individual. In Hinduism, marriage is regarded as a religious sacrament in which a man and a woman are bound with permanent relationship for physical, social, and spiritual purposes of dharma, procreation and sexual pleasure. When the theory regarding “three debts” evolved- first to god, second to sages and saints, and third to ancestors – the institution of marriage gained even greater importance and sanctity, since it was through marriage, through the process of jointly raising the family in accordance with moral and ethical principles, that one could repay the “debt to ancestors”. Marriage is regarded as a sacrifice, per vedic traditions, and a person who does not marry is said to be “one without sacrifice.” Taittiriya Brahmana says, “Person who does not have wife is without sacrifice.” A married life is considered essential for the growth of an individual’s personality. Upanishad had established the ashram theory that institutionalized four ashrams or phases in an individual’s life, to be followed in a sequential manner- Bramhacharya (life as a celibate student), Grahastha (life as a married person and fulfilling all social and moral responsibilities expected of a householder), Vanaprastha (transitory phase to a life of spirituality, involving renunciation of material comfort (artha) and physical desires (kama)) and finally, Sanyasa (phase of pursuing spiritual goals through abandonment of social connections to family and other institutions. During the Smriti phase of Vedic history, the ashram system was believed to have been divinely ordained, and it was thought to have been a sacred duty of every person to respect it. Smritis highly praise the life of a grahastha, regarding it as central to the whole social structure. In this phase, the society, in general, supported the three ashrams by means of knowledge, food and money.
The institution of marriage is integral to the grahastha ashram, since progeny helped grow the society and also further traditions and moral values (e.g., sharing one’s resources with the family (or families) and contributing to social rituals within one’s community). Marriages were also a means to forge relationships between families, towns, and kingdoms – and therefore did not mean relationships for mere fulfilment of sexual desires. [9] As mentioned, since the growth of a family represented the growth of a community, a society, and a way of life, most scriptures and spiritual texts have emphasized upon the critical role of family, and therefore, the desire for a wife. The second desire is for son and the third desire is to earn a livelihood.
The institution of marriage is integral to the grahastha ashram, since progeny helped grow the society and also further traditions and moral values (e.g., sharing one’s resources with the family (or families) and contributing to social rituals within one’s community). Marriages were also a means to forge relationships between families, towns, and kingdoms – and therefore did not mean relationships for mere fulfilment of sexual desires. [9] As mentioned, since the growth of a family represented the growth of a community, a society, and a way of life, most scriptures and spiritual texts have emphasized upon the critical role of family, and therefore, the desire for a wife. The second desire is for son and the third desire is to earn a livelihood.
As per the Bhela samhita [10] (Sutra 15), the three objectives are ‘pranaeshana’, ‘dhanaeshana’ and ‘dharmaeshana’ (performing religious acts). The first two desires are same as mentioned by Charaka, while third ‘dharmeshana’ is to follow the duties of individual towards one’s self, family, society, and realm, etc. abide by the moral and ethical traditions laid down in the scriptures, and maintain harmony between self and the society and environment, in general.
As per the Bhela samhita [10] (Sutra 15), the three objectives are ‘pranaeshana’, ‘dhanaeshana’ and ‘dharmaeshana’ (performing religious acts). The first two desires are same as mentioned by Charaka, while third ‘dharmeshana’ is to follow the duties of individual towards one’s self, family, society, and realm, etc. abide by the moral and ethical traditions laid down in the scriptures, and maintain harmony between self and the society and environment, in general.
Why is kamaeshana not included as a desire to be pursued?
==== Why is kamaeshana not included as a desire to be pursued? ====
Chakrapani [11] raised a question, “Why is ‘kamaeshana’ not mentioned?”. However, he goes on to give an explanation to this exclusion himself, writing that ‘kamaeshana’ can be considered as an implicit activity in one’s pursuit of pranaeshana and dhanaeshana. Since a person instinctively indulges in ‘kama’, there is no need to explain it separately.
After knowing the goals for fulfilment of aeshanas, the question of reincarnation arises which is discussed after a detailed description of aeshanas.
After knowing the goals for fulfilment of aeshanas, the question of reincarnation arises which is discussed after a detailed description of aeshanas.
The cause of Birth
==== The cause of Birth ====
Charaka asks whether life exists after death or not. Some support the idea of rebirth or reincarnation on the basis of scriptures but others do not. If the cause of birth is only attributed to parents, it is accepting only that which is perceptible. If only swabhava (natural trait or instinct) is considered as a reason (which does not sound to be a compelling reason), it is denying the existence of God. Paranirman is accepted as the cause for birth, since it considers the existence of God, and if yadruccha (supernatural power) is the only reason attributed to birth, then it supports the theory of supernatural power but does not support the existence of God.
Charaka asks whether life exists after death or not. Some support the idea of rebirth or reincarnation on the basis of scriptures but others do not. If the cause of birth is only attributed to parents, it is accepting only that which is perceptible. If only swabhava (natural trait or instinct) is considered as a reason (which does not sound to be a compelling reason), it is denying the existence of God. Paranirman is accepted as the cause for birth, since it considers the existence of God, and if yadruccha (supernatural power) is the only reason attributed to birth, then it supports the theory of supernatural power but does not support the existence of God.
Four pariksha and their clinical significance
==== Four pariksha and their clinical significance ====
The theory of reincarnation is explained by means of fourfold parikshas (examinations)- aptopadesha, pratkysha, anuman and yukti. These are considered to be the correct means of getting information regarding an individual’s birth and therefore, play a significant role in the diagnosis of diseases and deciding the course of treatment to be employed. In Vimana Sthana, Charaka considers the first three types of pariksha- aptopdesha, pratyaksha and anuman as acceptable means of examination. One should first examine the patient with the help of all the parikshas and then diagnose the disease. One should acquire knowledge systematically through "aptopadesha" followed by pratyakhsha and anumana. Use of all the three types of examination is recommended, and not any one of them alone, [Cha.Vi 4/5-1][13]
The theory of reincarnation is explained by means of fourfold parikshas (examinations)- aptopadesha, pratkysha, anuman and yukti. These are considered to be the correct means of getting information regarding an individual’s birth and therefore, play a significant role in the diagnosis of diseases and deciding the course of treatment to be employed. In Vimana Sthana, Charaka considers the first three types of pariksha- aptopdesha, pratyaksha and anuman as acceptable means of examination. One should first examine the patient with the help of all the parikshas and then diagnose the disease. One should acquire knowledge systematically through "aptopadesha" followed by pratyakhsha and anumana. Use of all the three types of examination is recommended, and not any one of them alone, [Cha.Vi 4/5-1][13]
Aptopdesha-Clinical Significance: [Ch. Vi.4/6]
==== Aptopdesha-Clinical Significance: [Ch. Vi.4/6] ====
Every disease should be studied carefully, with the help of the texts, from the standpoint of:
Every disease should be studied carefully, with the help of the texts, from the standpoint of:
# Prakopana-hetu (etiological factors of the disease)
# Yoni-doshas involved.
# Utthana-mode of manifestation
# Atma-nature of disease (seriousness or acuteness)
# Adhisthana-Location in organs of body & mind
# Vedana-Type of pain
# Sansthana-Symptoms
# Shabda, sparsha, rupa, rasa, gandha- Association with specific sounds, touch, colour, taste or smell
# Upadrava-Complications
# Vriddhi, sthana & kshaya-Symptoms of aggravation, normalcy and alleviations
# Udarka-prognosis
# Nama- Names of diseases
# Yoga-Concomitants / prescribed medicines
Pratyaksha
# Pratikara, pravrutti and nivrutti- Prescriptions & prohibitions in the treatment.
==== Pratyaksha ====
Pratyaksha or direct perception / observation is the knowledge gained by the union of (coming together) of atma, indriya (sense organs), manas (mind) and the indriyarthas (objects). [Ch.Su 11/20]
Pratyaksha or direct perception / observation is the knowledge gained by the union of (coming together) of atma, indriya (sense organs), manas (mind) and the indriyarthas (objects). [Ch.Su 11/20]
Clinical application
==== Clinical application ====
A Clinician desirous to gain knowledge about the disease by this examination should use his own sense organs, except his gustatory organ. [Ch. Vi. 4/7]
A Clinician desirous to gain knowledge about the disease by this examination should use his own sense organs, except his gustatory organ. [Ch. Vi. 4/7]
A physician has to hear the various sounds for this examination but ears cannot be directly applied over the body of the patient. An examination of the following can be done –
===== Shrota pratyaksha (auscultation / percussion) ====
A physician has to hear the various sounds for this examination but ears cannot be directly applied over the body of the patient. An examination of the following can be done by means of these tests:
# Antrakujana- gurgling sound from intestines
# Sandhisphutana anguliparvana- cracking sounds in joints, including small joints.
# Swaravishesha-voice of the patient
# Shariropagata shabda-specific sounds of patient, like coughing, hiccup etc.
For percussion of the body parts one must use both the palms. On the basis of the sound created by percussion, conclusions can be drawn. For example, on percussion of the abdomen, if a tympanic note is heard, then it could be attributed to gas in the intestines and if a dull note is heard, it may be due to collection of fluid in the abdominal cavity.
For percussion of the body parts one must use both the palms. On the basis of the sound created by percussion, conclusions can be drawn. For example, on percussion of the abdomen, if a tympanic note is heard, then it could be attributed to gas in the intestines and if a dull note is heard, it may be due to collection of fluid in the abdominal cavity.
Similarly, auscultation of thorax could be employed to examine pulmonary sounds and cardiac sounds, auscultation of abdomen for peristalsis, bruits, etc.
Similarly, auscultation of thorax could be employed to examine pulmonary sounds and cardiac sounds, auscultation of abdomen for peristalsis, bruits, etc.
===== Darshan pratyaksha (visual inspection) =====
Visual inspection can be employed to draw some inference on the nature of various elements, such as edema, cyanosis, petechiae, skin lesions, abnormal movements, deformities, using the following cues:
Visual inspection can be employed to draw some inference on the nature of various elements, such as edema, cyanosis, petechiae, skin lesions, abnormal movements, deformities, using the following cues:
# Varna (colour, complexion, or lustre), sansthana (shape), and pramana (measurements),
# Normal and abnormal appearance of body and organs,
# Whatever else not mentioned here but could be visually observed.
===== Rasapariksha (gustation-by inference) =====
“Tastes” of various factors in the body be ascertained by inference and not by direct observation:
“Tastes” of various factors in the body be ascertained by inference and not by direct observation:
1. “Taste” of the mouth of a patient: By interrogation
1. “Taste” of the mouth of a patient: By interrogation