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Sharira Sankhya Sharira (view source)

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<div style="text-align:justify;">This chapter is dedicated to numerological account and quantification of human anatomical and physiological constituents. It provides comprehensive knowledge about the organization of the body, its gross and subtle structures. The basic panchabhautika composition of human body is revealed which is helpful in understanding disease pathogenesis and prognosis. In brief, the chapter gives a general picture of how a body is organized by its functional organs, and emphasizes upon the importance of the knowledge of not only gross anatomy but at the cellular and sub cellular level.</div>

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'''Keywords''': ''Purusha, Chetana, Koshthanga,'' organs, physiological systems,layers of skin, bones, visceral organs, quantification of body constituents.

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'''Keywords''': ''[[Purusha]], Chetana, Koshthanga,'' organs, physiological systems,layers of skin, bones, visceral organs, quantification of body constituents.

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Five ''indriyadhishthana'' (seats of ''indriya'') are skin (''twacha''), tongue (''jihva''), nose (''nasika''), eyes (''netra'') and ears (''karna'').

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Five ''indriyadhishthana'' (seats of ''[[indriya]]'') are skin (''twacha''), tongue (''jihva''), nose (''nasika''), eyes (''netra'') and ears (''karna'').

Five ''buddhindriya'' (senses) are touch (''sparshana''), taste (''rasana''), smell (''ghrana''), vision (''darshana'') and hearing (''shrotra'').

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There are ten ''pranayatana'' in the body, i.e. ''murdha'' (head), ''kantha'' (throat), ''hridaya'' (heart), ''nabhi'' (umbilicus), ''guda'' (anus), ''basti'' (urinary bladder), ''~~oja~~'' (essence of vitality), ''shukra'' (semen, ovum), ''shonita'' (blood), and ''mamsa'' (muscle tissue). Of these, the first six are the ''marmas''. [9]

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There are ten ''pranayatana'' in the body, i.e. ''murdha'' (head), ''kantha'' (throat), ''hridaya'' (heart), ''nabhi'' (umbilicus), ''guda'' (anus), ''basti'' (urinary bladder), ''[[ojas]]'' (essence of vitality), ''[[shukra]]'' (semen, ovum), ''shonita'' (blood), and ''[[mamsa]]'' (muscle tissue). Of these, the first six are the ''marmas''. [9]

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'''Cross-reference:''' In [[Dashapranayataneeya Adhyaya]], Shankha (the temples) are listed instead of nabhi and mamsa.[Cha.Su.29/3-4]

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'''Cross-reference:''' In [[Dashapranayataneeya Adhyaya]], Shankha (the temples) are listed instead of nabhi and [[mamsa]].[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 29/3-4]

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Now we will describe the ''anjali pramana'' (literally, measurable by joining both palms. The quantity in it is ''anjali'' of one’s hand) by which bodily constituents or ''rasadi dhatu'', could be quantified in our body. The quantity of ''~~dhatus~~'' given here are the maximum quantity of respective constituents in the body and it may increase or decrease. Their variability could be measured logically. Water within a body is equal to ten ''anjalis'' of the person. The elimination of water in feces and sweat is (because of) excess quantity of water. Similarly, water is present in a specific proportion in urine, blood and other ''~~dhatus~~'' in the body. ''Jala'' within the whole body is stored in the external layer of the ''twacha'' (''udakadhara''). Water designated as ''lasika'', in the condition of a wound in the skin, is excreted through the hair pockets (sweat glands) as ''sweda'' (sweat). The quantum of water is equal to ten ''anjalis''. After the digestion of food, ''rasa'' (or ''rasa dhatu'') is equal to nine ''anjalis'', ''rakta'' (blood) is eight ''anjalis'', seven ''anjalis'' is ''purisha'' (feces), six ''anjalis'' is ''shleshma'', five ''anjalis'' is ''pitta'', four ''anjalis'' is ''mutra'', three ''anjalis'' is ''vasa'', two ''anjalis'' is ''meda'', one ''anjali'' is ''majja'', half ''anjali'' is ''mastishka'', half ''anjali'' is ''shukra'' and half ''anjali'' is ''slaeshmic ojas''. This concludes the measurement of body constituents. [15]

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Now we will describe the ''anjali pramana'' (literally, measurable by joining both palms. The quantity in it is ''anjali'' of one’s hand) by which bodily constituents or ''rasadi [[dhatu]]'', could be quantified in our body. The quantity of ''[[dhatu]]s'' given here are the maximum quantity of respective constituents in the body and it may increase or decrease. Their variability could be measured logically. Water within a body is equal to ten ''anjalis'' of the person. The elimination of water in feces and sweat is (because of) excess quantity of water. Similarly, water is present in a specific proportion in urine, blood and other ''[[dhatu]]s'' in the body. ''Jala'' within the whole body is stored in the external layer of the ''twacha'' (''udakadhara''). Water designated as ''lasika'', in the condition of a wound in the skin, is excreted through the hair pockets (sweat glands) as ''sweda'' (sweat). The quantum of water is equal to ten ''anjalis''. After the digestion of food, ''rasa'' (or ''[[rasa dhatu]]'') is equal to nine ''anjalis'', ''[[rakta]]'' (blood) is eight ''anjalis'', seven ''anjalis'' is ''[[purisha]]'' (feces), six ''anjalis'' is ''shleshma'', five ''anjalis'' is ''[[pitta]]'', four ''anjalis'' is ''[[mutra]]'', three ''anjalis'' is ''vasa'', two ''anjalis'' is ''[[meda]]'', one ''anjali'' is ''[[majja]]'', half ''anjali'' is ''mastishka'', half ''anjali'' is ''[[shukra]]'' and half ''anjali'' is ''slaeshmic [[ojas]]''. This concludes the measurement of body constituents. [15]

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=== ''Panchamahabhautic'' (basic elemental) consideration of the body constituents ===

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Specific expressions, structures, and organs of the body could be attributed to specific fundamental elements (''~~mahabhutas~~'') that they are made up of and, thus, display the properties of those elements. This verse lists them thus:

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Specific expressions, structures, and organs of the body could be attributed to specific fundamental elements (''[[mahabhuta]]s'') that they are made up of and, thus, display the properties of those elements. This verse lists them thus:

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*''Bhavas'' (expressions) of the body, specifically, ''sthula'' (solid), ''sthira'' (fixed), ''moortimana'' (visible), ''guru'' (heavy), ''khara'' (rough) and ''kathina'' (hard) are ''parthiva'' (''prithvi tattva pradhan'', or ''prithvi'' predominant properties), and are the qualities of ''nakha'' (nails), ''asthi'' (bones), ''danta'' (teeth), ''mamsa'' (muscle), ''charma'' (skin), ''varchas'' (feces), ''kesha'' (hair), ''smashru'' (beard), ''loma'' (body hair), ''kandara'' (tendons). All ''gandha'' (smells, olfactory senses) are ''parthiva'' (''prithvi guna pradhan'', i.e., of the qualities of ''prithvi'').

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*''Bhavas'' (expressions) of the body, specifically, ''sthula'' (solid), ''sthira'' (fixed), ''moortimana'' (visible), ''guru'' (heavy), ''khara'' (rough) and ''kathina'' (hard) are ''parthiva'' (''prithvi tattva pradhan'', or ''[[prithvi]]'' predominant properties), and are the qualities of ''nakha'' (nails), ''asthi'' (bones), ''danta'' (teeth), ''mamsa'' (muscle), ''charma'' (skin), ''varchas'' (feces), ''kesha'' (hair), ''smashru'' (beard), ''loma'' (body hair), ''kandara'' (tendons). All ''gandha'' (smells, olfactory senses) are ''parthiva'' (''prithvi guna pradhan'', i.e., of the qualities of ''[[prithvi]]'').

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*''Dravyas'', especially ''drava'' (liquid), ''sara'' (slight movable), ''manda'' (slow), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''mridu'' (soft), and ''pichchhil'' (viscous), are all ''apya bhava'' (''jala tattva pradhan'', or ''jala'' predominant properties), and are the properties of bodily constituents such as ''rasa'' (plasma), ''rakta'' (blood), ''vasa'' (muscle fat), ''kapha, pitta, ~~mootra~~'' (urine) and ''sweda'' (sweat). Taste (''rasa'') and all gustatory senses are ''apya'' (''jala guna pradhan'', i.e., are predominantly of the qualities of ''jala'').

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*''Dravyas'', especially ''drava'' (liquid), ''sara'' (slight movable), ''manda'' (slow), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''mridu'' (soft), and ''pichchhil'' (viscous), are all ''apya bhava'' (''jala tattva pradhan'', or ''jala'' predominant properties), and are the properties of bodily constituents such as ''[[rasa]]'' (plasma), ''[[rakta]]'' (blood), ''vasa'' (muscle fat), ''[[kapha]], [[pitta]], [[mutra]]'' (urine) and ''sweda'' (sweat). Taste (''rasa'') and all gustatory senses are ''apya'' (''jala guna pradhan'', i.e., are predominantly of the qualities of ''jala'').

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*Those which are in the form of ''pitta'', and possess properties such as ''ushma'' (hot, warm), ''bha'' (shine or aura around the body), possess ''rupa'' (with a visible form) and are associated with vision sense organs are ''agneya'' (''agni guna pradhan'', or predominantly of the qualities of ''agni'').

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*Those which are in the form of ''[[pitta]]'', and possess properties such as ''ushma'' (hot, warm), ''bha'' (shine or aura around the body), possess ''rupa'' (with a visible form) and are associated with vision sense organs are ''agneya'' (''agni guna pradhan'', or predominantly of the qualities of ''agni'').

*Functions such as ''uchhwas'' (inspiration, or breathing in), ''prashwas'' (expiration, or breathing out), ''unmesh'' (opening of eyes), ''nimesh'' (closing of eyes), ''akunchan'' (flexion), ''prasarana'' (extension), ''gamana'' (movement), ''prerana'' (expulsion), ''dharana'' (retention) and all tactile senses are ''vayaviya bhava'' (''vayu'' predominant expressions).

*Those that are ''vivikta avayava'' (structures with space and openings), major and minor ''srotasas'', sound and hearing sensory organs are all ''akashiya bhava''.

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*That which is the owner of all the ''bhavas'' and is the user of them, the ''jeevatma'', which is the head (''pradhana''), the soul. Including the ''buddhi'' and ''~~mana~~'', these three are the systemic sources for perception of information and development of knowledge in the body.

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*That which is the owner of all the ''bhavas'' and is the user of them, the ''jeevatma'', which is the head (''pradhana''), the soul. Including the ''[[buddhi]]'' and ''[[manas]]'', these three are the systemic sources for perception of information and development of knowledge in the body.

Thus, the key organizing/governing components of body have been described briefly. [16]

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A truly wise person, one who knows of every aspect of the body, does not fall into the afflictions of ''~~doshas~~'' caused due to ignorance. Moreover, after knowing the secrets of life and after becoming free from the trappings of ''raga'' and ''dvesha'' (attachment and detachment), as well as after becoming ''nirdushta'' (fair, neutral, free from the qualities of ''raja'' and ''tama'') and ''sprasharahit'' (unflappable, calm), he becomes free from the cycle of birth and death and gains ultimate lasting peace.[20]

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A truly wise person, one who knows of every aspect of the body, does not fall into the afflictions of ''[[dosha]]s'' caused due to ignorance. Moreover, after knowing the secrets of life and after becoming free from the trappings of ''raga'' and ''dvesha'' (attachment and detachment), as well as after becoming ''nirdushta'' (fair, neutral, free from the qualities of ''[[raja]]'' and ''[[tama]]'') and ''sprasharahit'' (unflappable, calm), he becomes free from the cycle of birth and death and gains ultimate lasting peace.[20]

== Tattva Vimarsha (Fundamental Principles) ==

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*The physician who knows the body as an organization of organs and systems, along with all their constituents and has knowledge of not only gross anatomy but of the cellular, sub cellular and deepest level of their function can manage diseases and prevent recurrence. This leads to a disease free status. One who knows of every aspect of the body, does not fall into the afflictions of ''~~doshas~~'' caused due to ignorance.

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*The physician who knows the body as an organization of organs and systems, along with all their constituents and has knowledge of not only gross anatomy but of the cellular, sub cellular and deepest level of their function can manage diseases and prevent recurrence. This leads to a disease free status. One who knows of every aspect of the body, does not fall into the afflictions of ''[[dosha]]s'' caused due to ignorance.

*The knowledge of anatomy and physiology is important to understand prognosis of disease in terms its severity and probable duration of treatment. It also indicates towards the probable receptors for disease specific target oriented drug delivery system.

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*The quantification of ''dhatu'' is personified in terms of ''anjali'' measurement. Therefore the standard limits of physiological fluids will vary according to ''anjali'' of a person.

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*The quantification of ''[[dhatu]]'' is personified in terms of ''anjali'' measurement. Therefore the standard limits of physiological fluids will vary according to ''anjali'' of a person.

*The basic ''panchabhautik'' composition of body constituents shall be considered while treating a disease.

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=== Special significance of skin in [[Ayurveda]] ===

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The skin is the biggest organ of the body and makes the integumentary system, comprising of hair, nails etc. It constitutes 16% of body weight. It is a combined product of ectoderm as well as of mesoderm. Akin to the nervous system, epidermis is developed from the ectoderm, whereas dermis is derived from the mesoderm. The skin, from the standpoint of [[Ayurveda]], is the ''upadhatu'' of ''mamsa dhatu'', which may be because of their common germinal base. The muscles and dermis - both are organs of mesoblastic origin. Dermis is a well vascularized structure and is a very active organ. Epidermis has no blood vessels and only its basal layers get nourishment from the source of dermis next to it. The skin is also called ''mamsavaha srotas'' [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 5/7] since the skin synthesises<ref>Elaine N. Marieb, Human Anatomy and Physiology, 6th edition, pearson Education, Inc. Ch 24.</ref> Vitamin D, a basic source for calcium. Calcium is assimilated and absorbed from the gut with the help of vitamin D. The physiology of action in the muscle is totally calcium dependent. This is why ''twak'' is considered to be the ''mula'' (root) of ''mamsavaha srotas''<ref> Guyton & Hall, textbook of medical Physiology, 10th edition, saunders, Philadelphia, Chapter 6. </ref>.

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The skin is the biggest organ of the body and makes the integumentary system, comprising of hair, nails etc. It constitutes 16% of body weight. It is a combined product of ectoderm as well as of mesoderm. Akin to the nervous system, epidermis is developed from the ectoderm, whereas dermis is derived from the mesoderm. The skin, from the standpoint of [[Ayurveda]], is the ''upadhatu'' of ''[[mamsa dhatu]]'', which may be because of their common germinal base. The muscles and dermis - both are organs of mesoblastic origin. Dermis is a well vascularized structure and is a very active organ. Epidermis has no blood vessels and only its basal layers get nourishment from the source of dermis next to it. The skin is also called ''mamsavaha srotas'' [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 5/7] since the skin synthesises<ref>Elaine N. Marieb, Human Anatomy and Physiology, 6th edition, pearson Education, Inc. Ch 24.</ref> Vitamin D, a basic source for calcium. Calcium is assimilated and absorbed from the gut with the help of vitamin D. The physiology of action in the muscle is totally calcium dependent. This is why ''twak'' is considered to be the ''mula'' (root) of ''mamsavaha srotas''<ref> Guyton & Hall, textbook of medical Physiology, 10th edition, saunders, Philadelphia, Chapter 6. </ref>.

The skin is made up of three basic layers:

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Alternative views on this topic could be researched further, since the papillary and reticular layers are the part of dermis and anatomically represent a single organic entity therefore the fifth and sixth layers of Charaka’s ''twacha'' model may correlate with the dermis layer together. The same goes with Sushruta’s ''vedini'' and ''rohini'' layers (excluding Sushruta’s seventh layer from our analysis).

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From the standpoint of clinical importance of the ''twacha sharira'', the function of the skin is not described clearly in [[Ayurveda]]. However, the functions of skin could be inferred through references in various ''samhitas''. Charaka has presented the characteristics of the ''twaksara purusha'' (excellence of ''twak'') under [[Vimana Sthana]]4, which details the functions and properties of normal skin . The skin of the ''twakasara purusha'' should be unctuous (''snigdha''), smooth (''shlakshna''), soft (''mridu''), clean/glorious (''prasanna''), fine (''sukshma''), close/not loose (''alpa''), thick (''gambhir''), with soft hair (''sukumar loma''), and radiant (''saprabha''). This type of excellent quality of skin is indicative of a lot of qualities in an individual, including happiness, prosperity, splendor, pleasure, intelligence, knowledge, health, contentment and longevity. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 8/103]

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From the standpoint of clinical importance of the ''twacha sharira'', the function of the skin is not described clearly in [[Ayurveda]]. However, the functions of skin could be inferred through references in various ''samhitas''. Charaka has presented the characteristics of the ''twaksara [[purusha]]'' (excellence of ''twak'') under [[Vimana Sthana]]4, which details the functions and properties of normal skin . The skin of the ''twakasara [[purusha]]'' should be unctuous (''snigdha''), smooth (''shlakshna''), soft (''mridu''), clean/glorious (''prasanna''), fine (''sukshma''), close/not loose (''alpa''), thick (''gambhir''), with soft hair (''sukumar loma''), and radiant (''saprabha''). This type of excellent quality of skin is indicative of a lot of qualities in an individual, including happiness, prosperity, splendor, pleasure, intelligence, knowledge, health, contentment and longevity. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 8/103]

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As such, the texture or appearance of the skin is reflective of the inner state of a person. If skin is healthy, it is likely that other organs of the body will be healthy as well. Symptoms of sickness of other systems get reflected on the skin. So, if the skin is taken good care of, or observed carefully, it would help take preventive measures and generally would benefit other bodily systems also. This realization has led to the development of various therapies under the general umbrella of [[Panchakarma]]. According to Sushruta, the skin is the seat of ''bhrajaka pitta'', and because of ''bhrajak pitta''5, the skin catalyzes the metabolic processes related with the therapies of ''abhyanga, parisheka, avagaha, alepana, udvartana'', etc.[Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana 21/10]<ref name=Susruta/>

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As such, the texture or appearance of the skin is reflective of the inner state of a person. If skin is healthy, it is likely that other organs of the body will be healthy as well. Symptoms of sickness of other systems get reflected on the skin. So, if the skin is taken good care of, or observed carefully, it would help take preventive measures and generally would benefit other bodily systems also. This realization has led to the development of various therapies under the general umbrella of [[Panchakarma]]. According to Sushruta, the skin is the seat of ''bhrajaka [[pitta]]'', and because of ''bhrajak [[pitta]]''5, the skin catalyzes the metabolic processes related with the therapies of ''abhyanga, parisheka, avagaha, alepana, udvartana'', etc.[Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana 21/10]<ref name=Susruta/>

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Skin is largely an organ of ectodermal origin, like the nervous system. All sensory organs have the same basis for development and because the nervous system has evolved to ensure the protection/survival of the organism against the changes in internal and external environments (and this explanation could be extended to the evolution of the other sensory organs as well), these are derived from the ectoderm. As such, the skin gives the person his “personality” and identity. Sharangadhara writes that healthy skin enhances wisdom, knowledge and overall health of an individual, while describing the functions of ''pitta'' [Sha. Purva khanda 5/30]<ref name=Shargadara>Sharangadhara, Sharangadhara Samhita. Edited by Parasuram Shasthri. 3rd ed. Varanasi: Choukhamba Orientalia;1983.</ref>[4]

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Skin is largely an organ of ectodermal origin, like the nervous system. All sensory organs have the same basis for development and because the nervous system has evolved to ensure the protection/survival of the organism against the changes in internal and external environments (and this explanation could be extended to the evolution of the other sensory organs as well), these are derived from the ectoderm. As such, the skin gives the person his “personality” and identity. Sharangadhara writes that healthy skin enhances wisdom, knowledge and overall health of an individual, while describing the functions of ''[[pitta]]'' [Sha. Purva khanda 5/30]<ref name=Shargadara>Sharangadhara, Sharangadhara Samhita. Edited by Parasuram Shasthri. 3rd ed. Varanasi: Choukhamba Orientalia;1983.</ref>[4]

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Sushruta has also quoted that the body has six divisions. In the chapter ''Sharirasankhya Vyakarana'', he specially quotes that the ''garbha'' (embryo) is formed after fertilization of ovum with sperm, which is charged with ''chetana'' (consciousness) and in which ''vayu'' functions for division, ''teja'' functions for ''pachana, apa'' functions for ''kledana'' (moisture), ''prithvi'' functions for ''samhanana'' (compactness) and ''akasha'' functions for ''vivardhana'' (growth). Such a ''garbha'', when attains the development of organs and structures like ''hasta, pada, jihva, ghrana, karna, nitamba'' etc. then is called ''sharira''. That ''sharira'' is ''shadanga sharira''7, having four limbs (two upper limb and two lower limbs), fifth is the torso and the sixth is the head. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 5/2]<ref name=Susruta/>[5]

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Sushruta has also quoted that the body has six divisions. In the chapter ''Sharirasankhya Vyakarana'', he specially quotes that the ''garbha'' (embryo) is formed after fertilization of ovum with sperm, which is charged with ''chetana'' (consciousness) and in which ''vayu'' functions for division, ''teja'' functions for ''[[pachana]], apa'' functions for ''kledana'' (moisture), ''[[prithvi]]'' functions for ''samhanana'' (compactness) and ''[[akasha]]'' functions for ''vivardhana'' (growth). Such a ''[[garbha]]'', when attains the development of organs and structures like ''hasta, pada, jihva, ghrana, karna, nitamba'' etc. then is called ''sharira''. That ''sharira'' is ''shadanga sharira''7, having four limbs (two upper limb and two lower limbs), fifth is the torso and the sixth is the head. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 5/2]<ref name=Susruta/>[5]

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Charaka followed the vedic scriptures and rituals, as is evident from his works. Since touching or handling bones was considered inauspicious, he presumably did not verify and count the bones himself but only repeated whatever was quoted in the ''vedas''. In any case, we find at many places that he was very accurate in his assessment of the number of bones in various parts of the body, e.g. bones of ''prashtha bhag, griva bhag, hanu bhag, shroni bhag'' and ''urah'' (if cartilages are counted as bones). It is interesting to note that Charaka considered articular disc of the tempero mandibular joint an ''asthi'' (bone) and designated it ''hanumoolabandhana''.

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Charaka followed the vedic scriptures and rituals, as is evident from his works. Since touching or handling bones was considered inauspicious, he presumably did not verify and count the bones himself but only repeated whatever was quoted in the ''vedas''. In any case, we find at many places that he was very accurate in his assessment of the number of bones in various parts of the body, e.g. bones of ''prashtha bhag, griva bhag, hanu bhag, shroni bhag'' and ''urah'' (if cartilages are counted as bones). It is interesting to note that Charaka considered articular disc of the tempero mandibular joint an ''[[asthi]]'' (bone) and designated it ''hanumoolabandhana''.

=== Number of bones in modern anatomy ===

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#Charaka was a ''vedavadi'' whereas Sushruta was not, he was a ''shalya shastri'' (surgeon), and hence Charaka has not given any classification of bones, while Sushruta has.

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#Charaka counted nails as ''asthi'' (bones) whereas Sushruta has not.

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#Charaka counted nails as ''[[asthi]]'' (bones) whereas Sushruta has not.

#Charaka has counted sacral and coccygial bones under bones of the back (''prashthasthi'') whereas Sushruta has counted them under the bones of ''shroni'' (pelvis).

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#Charaka has counted 32 teeth sockets as ''asthi'' whereas Sushruta has not counted them as ''asthi''.

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#Charaka has counted 32 teeth sockets as ''[[asthi]]'' whereas Sushruta has not counted them as ''[[asthi]]''.

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#Charaka has counted ''hanumoola bandhana'' (mandibular disc) under ''asthi'', whereas Sushruta has not.

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#Charaka has counted ''hanumoola bandhana'' (mandibular disc) under ''[[asthi]]'', whereas Sushruta has not.

#In other accounts differences vary on both sides

Gananath Sen<ref> Gananathsen, Pratyaksha Shariram,1st part1941 edition, Kalpataru Press Calcutta, 3rd chapter </ref>, a reputable contemporary authority in the subject of ''sharira'', has submitted some exclusive opinions. Other than the observations on Charaka being a ''vedavadi'', or the inclusion of teeth nails as bones, etc., he points to certain conditions arising because of ossification centers in the bones. According to him, the presence of secondary ossification centers (epiphysis) may increase the number of bones in counting. [6]

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=== Indriya ===

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=== [[Indriya]] ===

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Reviewing ''indriya'' requires the review of materials quoted under [[Indriyopakramaniya Adhyaya]] under [[Sutra Sthana]]. Under this chapter, Charaka has presented ''pancha panchaka vigyana''and said that there are five ''indriya'', five ''indriya dravya'', five ''indriyaadhishthana'', five ''indriyartha'' and five ''indriyabuddhi''.[ Cha.Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 8/3]

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Reviewing ''[[indriya]]'' requires the review of materials quoted under [[Indriyopakramaniya Adhyaya]] under [[Sutra Sthana]]. Under this chapter, Charaka has presented ''pancha panchaka vigyana''and said that there are five ''[[indriya]]'', five ''indriya dravya'', five ''indriyaadhishthana'', five ''indriyartha'' and five ''indriyabuddhi''.[ Cha.Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 8/3]

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After an exhaustive modern review, it can be said that ''panchendriya'' are such types of receptor cells which are located at the most peripheral end part of sensory pathway and function to transform the various specific type of energies into electrical energy, since brain cells know only one type of language/energy i.e. electricity. Therefore, every other type of energy is transformed into electricity and this is done by a frontline transforming cell. In every type of sensory organ, there are specific types of energy transforming cells, e.g. pressure sensitive nerve endings in pacinian corpuscle for touch, taste sensitive nerve endings in taste buds for taste, smell sensitive nerve endings in gustatory cells for smell, light sensitive nerve endings in rods and cones for vision and sound sensitive nerve endings in hair cells for hearing. In this account these cells could be considered ''indriya''. Sensory receptors<ref> Guyton & Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th edition, saunders, Philadelphia, page no. 560- 569. </ref> could be classified in the following two ways i.e. (a) On the basis of the location of the receptor, and (b) on the basis of the modality of energies. Under the first category, there are three types, i.e. extero-receptors, intero-receptors and proprio-receptors, and under the second category there are several types of receptors, e.g. mechano-receptors, thermo-receptors, vibro-receptors, baro-receptors, proprio-receptors, photo-receptors, chemo-receptors, osmo-receptors, noscireceptors, tickle-receptors etc.)

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After an exhaustive modern review, it can be said that ''panchendriya'' are such types of receptor cells which are located at the most peripheral end part of sensory pathway and function to transform the various specific type of energies into electrical energy, since brain cells know only one type of language/energy i.e. electricity. Therefore, every other type of energy is transformed into electricity and this is done by a frontline transforming cell. In every type of sensory organ, there are specific types of energy transforming cells, e.g. pressure sensitive nerve endings in pacinian corpuscle for touch, taste sensitive nerve endings in taste buds for taste, smell sensitive nerve endings in gustatory cells for smell, light sensitive nerve endings in rods and cones for vision and sound sensitive nerve endings in hair cells for hearing. In this account these cells could be considered ''[[indriya]]''. Sensory receptors<ref> Guyton & Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th edition, saunders, Philadelphia, page no. 560- 569. </ref> could be classified in the following two ways i.e. (a) On the basis of the location of the receptor, and (b) on the basis of the modality of energies. Under the first category, there are three types, i.e. extero-receptors, intero-receptors and proprio-receptors, and under the second category there are several types of receptors, e.g. mechano-receptors, thermo-receptors, vibro-receptors, baro-receptors, proprio-receptors, photo-receptors, chemo-receptors, osmo-receptors, noscireceptors, tickle-receptors etc.)

−

''Panchendriyadravyani'' are ''[[panchamahabhuta]]'', i.e. kha [[akasha]], [[vayu]], jyoti ([[agni]]), apa ([[jala]]) and bhu ([[prithvi]]). On the account of panchamahabhuta, there could be 26 biologically important elements<ref> Tortora Gerard J, Principles of Anatomy & Physiology, 11th edition, Harper & Row Publishers, New York, 1st chapter.</ref> (Tortora Gerard J., Principles of Anatomy and Physiology)

+

''Panchendriyadravyani'' are ''[[panchamahabhuta]]'', i.e. kha [[akasha]], [[vayu]], jyoti ([[agni]]), apa ([[jala]]) and bhu ([[prithvi]]). On the account of [[panchamahabhuta]], there could be 26 biologically important elements<ref> Tortora Gerard J, Principles of Anatomy & Physiology, 11th edition, Harper & Row Publishers, New York, 1st chapter.</ref> (Tortora Gerard J., Principles of Anatomy and Physiology)

These elements are H, O, N, C, Ca, Mg, P, Na, K, Cl, S, I, Fl, Cu, Co, Cr, Fe, Se, Si, Vn, Sn,Zn, Mo, Mn, Al & B. As these elements are critical to the formation of life and are found in the animal cell, have some role in the development and function of the cell.

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''Panchendriyabuddhi'' are the five respective memories and “info-potentials” capable of synthesizing (identifying and translating) information received through the five sense organs, transmitted in the form of electrical energy. ''Indriyabuddhi'' are ''shabdindriyabuddhi'', ''sparshindriyabuddhi, roopindriyabuddhi, rasanindriyabuddhi'' and ''gandhindriyabuddhi''. These ''~~buddhis~~'' are located in the form of sensory areas and psychological/association areas.

+

''Panchendriyabuddhi'' are the five respective memories and “info-potentials” capable of synthesizing (identifying and translating) information received through the five sense organs, transmitted in the form of electrical energy. ''Indriyabuddhi'' are ''shabdindriyabuddhi'', ''sparshindriyabuddhi, roopindriyabuddhi, rasanindriyabuddhi'' and ''gandhindriyabuddhi''. These ''[[buddhi]]s'' are located in the form of sensory areas and psychological/association areas.

</div>

{| class="wikitable"

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''Buddhindriya'', as described here, seems to be different than ''panchendriya buddhi''. It can be observed that the ''panchendriya buddhi'' is a part of the cerebrum and is only a component of the ''indriya panchaka''. ''Buddhindriya'', on the other hand, is a part of the sensory system excluding ''indriyaadhishthana''. It implies that this includes all other four components mentioned in the preceding pages, namely ''indriya, indriyadravya, indriyartha'' and ''indriyabuddhi''. As a part of basic developmental embryology we find that most of the parts of a sensory system excluding the mesoblastic derivatives are developed as a part of brain. The same is very obvious in the eye, in which the parts of optic tract beginning from retina are all considered as part of brain. As such as a part of the theory of Charaka on ''gyanendriya'' it should be taken that five sensory systems are made of two components ''indriyadhishthan'' and ''buddhindriya''. ''Indriyadhishthana'' is the peripheral part of the organ connected by connective tissues of mesodermal origin, whereas ''buddhindriya'' stands for the remaining part that continues into the cerebrum as a logical, connected entity and comprises of four sub-factors: ''indriya, indriyadravya, indriyartha'' and ''indritabuddhi''.

+

''Buddhindriya'', as described here, seems to be different than ''panchendriya [[buddhi]]''. It can be observed that the ''panchendriya [[buddhi]]'' is a part of the cerebrum and is only a component of the ''[[indriya]] panchaka''. ''Buddhindriya'', on the other hand, is a part of the sensory system excluding ''indriyaadhishthana''. It implies that this includes all other four components mentioned in the preceding pages, namely ''[[indriya]], indriyadravya, indriyartha'' and ''indriyabuddhi''. As a part of basic developmental embryology we find that most of the parts of a sensory system excluding the mesoblastic derivatives are developed as a part of brain. The same is very obvious in the eye, in which the parts of optic tract beginning from retina are all considered as part of brain. As such as a part of the theory of Charaka on ''gyanendriya'' it should be taken that five sensory systems are made of two components ''indriyadhishthan'' and ''buddhindriya''. ''Indriyadhishthana'' is the peripheral part of the organ connected by connective tissues of mesodermal origin, whereas ''buddhindriya'' stands for the remaining part that continues into the cerebrum as a logical, connected entity and comprises of four sub-factors: ''[[indriya]], indriyadravya, indriyartha'' and ''indritabuddhi''.

''Panchakarmendriya'' (motor systems) are the hands (''hasta''), feet (''pada''), anus (''payu''), penis (''upastha'') and tongue (''jihva''). Here, the question is whether these motor organs are formed by only a group of muscles dealing with a given function or by a group of muscles and their nerves or the group of muscles and their nerves and their controlling part of brain (motor cortex) because muscle itself cannot perform any function alone. The muscle only performs when the nerve supply is intact and the commanding system is properly functioning. When there is failure in performance it is from all the side as a composite failure. Moreover when there is paralysis of motor organs or of a part of the system, it may be due to disruption in the nervous system or degeneration of a nerve or of the motor tract including UMN or cortical neurons. Hence muscles alone cannot be considered responsible for ''karmendriya''. ''Karmendriya'' can only be the complete motor system comprising organs from motor cortex to the muscles. [7]

−

Sushruta mentions that ''hridaya'' is formed by the ''prasad bhag'' of ''kapha'' and ''shonita/rakta'' (mentioned in Amarkosh, where it is also referred to as ''hridaya'') and is the seat of ''pranavaha dhamani''. Inferior to it are ''pleeha'' (spleen) and ''phuphphus'' (lung) and to its right side are ''yakrit'' (liver) and ''kloma'' (pancreas). As reiterated on multiple occasions, the ''hridaya'' is the seat of chetana. When it gets covered by ''tama'', the being goes into sleep. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 4/30]<ref name=Susruta/>

+

Sushruta mentions that ''hridaya'' is formed by the ''prasad bhag'' of ''[[kapha]]'' and ''shonita/[[rakta]]'' (mentioned in Amarkosh, where it is also referred to as ''hridaya'') and is the seat of ''pranavaha dhamani''. Inferior to it are ''pleeha'' (spleen) and ''phuphphus'' (lung) and to its right side are ''yakrit'' (liver) and ''kloma'' (pancreas). As reiterated on multiple occasions, the ''hridaya'' is the seat of chetana. When it gets covered by ''tama'', the being goes into sleep. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 4/30]<ref name=Susruta/>

In other places within the Amarkosh, the word ''hridaya'' has been used synonymously with mana<ref> 14.Amar singh, Namalinganushashanam Amar Koshah, 1940 edition, Oriental Book Agency, Poona. </ref>. However, the ''hridaya'' is not a proxy of ''mana''. The heart means ''harati raktam'', or ''hriyate raktam anen iti'', i.e., from which blood is taken or given to the body. Arteries are called ''pranavaha'' (or carriers of life-force), because they deliver oxygen-rich blood from the heart, the failure of which most certainly leads to death.

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''Pranayatana'' (vital sites) in Ashtanga Samgraha: Vagbhata has shown some different features under the heading of ''pranayatana'' (Ashtanga Sangraha). Accordingly he has included ''jihvabandhana'' (root of tongue) as ''pranayatana'' and excluded ''mamsa'' from this account. The site of ''jihvabandhana'' is valuable because of the opening site of respiratory system. Any trauma at this blocking to respiratory passage may cause death, therefore it has been given much importance in anesthesia. In the case of deep coma falling of tongue back in the throat blocks the respiration and leads to death. Exclusion of ''mamsa'' from ''pranayatana'' by Vagbhatta seems to be his personal opinion only perhaps he was not willing to increase the number of ''pranayatana'', otherwise this was easy to justify.

−

''Prana'': When ''pranayatana'' are on the table of discussion we have to review ''prana''. Factors which maintain the life are ''prana''. ''Prana'' are said to be 12 in number by Sushruta. [Su.Sa. Sharira Sthana 4/2]<ref name=Susruta/> These ''pranas'' are ''agni, soma, vayu, satva, raja, tama, panchendriya'' and ''bhutatma''. As such these factors are categorically divided in four groups, i.e. ''tridosha, triguna, panchagyanendriya'' and ''bhutatma''. On a biological level tridosha can be seen somewhere in the form of biochemical regulators of life, e.g. hormones, enzymes etc., ''triguna'' in the form of neuro-chemical regulators of life, e.g. acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine, melatonin etc., and ''jnanendriya'' in the form of cell receptors and neuroreceptors. Speaking on ''bhutatma'' is a difficult job, whereas a critical evaluation of the same is must at this level. It is a well accepted fact in [[Ayurveda]] that all the organic world is ''panchamahabhautic''. At this level a ''bhuta'' could be considered to be an organism – a unicellular bacteria or a cell. Cell being a ''bhuta'' holds its ''atma'' in it which solely operates its function and development. Since DNA is responsible to control the function and development. The entire metabolism in the cell is basically controlled by DNA. DNA makes RNA by transcription, RNA makes protein by translation, protein is found basically in two types, i.e. structural and functional<ref>Dorothy Luciano, Human Structure & Function.1984 edition, Elsavier, Philadelphia, 1st & 2nd chapter.</ref>. Functional protein means enzyme. Enzyme mediates the biochemical changes in the body. Any change in the cell cannot be caused without the mediation of an enzyme. This is how we can see that DNA is solely controlling the metabolism in the body. Therefore if we refer the DNA to be taken as ''bhutama'', yet this will not be any mistake. [9]

+

''Prana'': When ''pranayatana'' are on the table of discussion we have to review ''prana''. Factors which maintain the life are ''prana''. ''Prana'' are said to be 12 in number by Sushruta. [Su.Sa. Sharira Sthana 4/2]<ref name=Susruta/> These ''pranas'' are ''agni, soma, vayu, satva, [[raja]], [[tama]], panchendriya'' and ''bhutatma''. As such these factors are categorically divided in four groups, i.e. ''tridosha, triguna, panchagyanendriya'' and ''bhutatma''. On a biological level tridosha can be seen somewhere in the form of biochemical regulators of life, e.g. hormones, enzymes etc., ''triguna'' in the form of neuro-chemical regulators of life, e.g. acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine, melatonin etc., and ''jnanendriya'' in the form of cell receptors and neuroreceptors. Speaking on ''bhutatma'' is a difficult job, whereas a critical evaluation of the same is must at this level. It is a well accepted fact in [[Ayurveda]] that all the organic world is ''panchamahabhautic''. At this level a ''bhuta'' could be considered to be an organism – a unicellular bacteria or a cell. Cell being a ''bhuta'' holds its ''[[atma]]'' in it which solely operates its function and development. Since DNA is responsible to control the function and development. The entire metabolism in the cell is basically controlled by DNA. DNA makes RNA by transcription, RNA makes protein by translation, protein is found basically in two types, i.e. structural and functional<ref>Dorothy Luciano, Human Structure & Function.1984 edition, Elsavier, Philadelphia, 1st & 2nd chapter.</ref>. Functional protein means enzyme. Enzyme mediates the biochemical changes in the body. Any change in the cell cannot be caused without the mediation of an enzyme. This is how we can see that DNA is solely controlling the metabolism in the body. Therefore if we refer the DNA to be taken as ''bhutama'', yet this will not be any mistake. [9]

Commentators of present time have very well worked for correlating the ''koshthangas'' presented by Charaka with the structure described in modern anatomy. Research scholars have also done well in this area. Suitable anatomical correlations for all 15 ''koshthangas'' are presented in the following table.

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Chakrapani on ''koshthanga'': According to Chakrapani, ''kloma'' is the seat of thirst, ''basti'' is the seat of urine, ''uttarguda'' is where bowels are retained, through which bowels are evacuated is ''adharaguda'' and ''vapavahana'' (''tailvartika'') is the seat of ''meda''.[Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 7/10]

+

Chakrapani on ''koshthanga'': According to Chakrapani, ''kloma'' is the seat of thirst, ''basti'' is the seat of urine, ''uttarguda'' is where bowels are retained, through which bowels are evacuated is ''adharaguda'' and ''vapavahana'' (''tailvartika'') is the seat of ''[[meda]]''.[Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 7/10]

Sushruta on ''koshthanga'': Description of ''koshthanga'' is a topographical anatomy. Pattern of presenting topographical anatomy by Sushruta [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 5/4]<ref name=Susruta/> was different than that of Charaka. He has firstly presented the ''pratyanga'' (subdivisions of the regions), then he has presented further components (''gananiya avayava'') of ''pratyangas''. Under ''gananiya'' he has considered the ''koshangas''. Under this he has used composite terms for specific group of organs like ''ashaya'' which includes 7 organs. Among visceral organs he has considered ''unduka'' (caecum) and ''fupfus'' (lungs) under ''gananiya avayava'', which are not given by Charaka.

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| 1 || Udaka (water) || 10

|-

−

| 2 || Rasa || 09

+

| 2 || [[Rasa]] || 09

|-

−

| 3 || Rakta || 08

+

| 3 || [[Rakta]] || 08

|-

−

| 4 || Purisha || 07

+

| 4 || [[Purisha]] || 07

|-

| 5 || Shleshma || 06

|-

−

| 6 || Pitta || 05

+

| 6 || [[Pitta]] || 05

|-

−

| 7 || Mutra || 04

+

| 7 || [[Mutra]] || 04

|-

| 8 || Vasa || 03

|-

−

| 9 || Meda || 02

+

| 9 || [[Meda]] || 02

|-

−

| 10|| Majja || 01

+

| 10|| [[Majja]] || 01

|-

| 11|| Mastishka

|<span style="font-size:66%; line-height: 1.3em;">1/2</span>

|-

−

| 12|| Shukra

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| 12|| [[Shukra]]

|<span style="font-size:66%; line-height: 1.3em;">1/2</span>

|-

−

| 13|| Shlaishmic ~~Oja~~

+

| 13|| Shlaishmic [[Ojas]]

|<span style="font-size:66%; line-height: 1.3em;">1/2</span>

|-

|}

[15]

−

*On the basis of ''panchamahabhuta'' the structures, organs and their functional expressions (''bhavas'') are categorically presented in the under given table.

+

*On the basis of ''[[panchamahabhuta]]'' the structures, organs and their functional expressions (''bhavas'') are categorically presented in the under given table.

−

Table: Showing structures, organs and their functional expressions (Bhavas) on the basis of ~~Panchamahabhoota~~.

+

Table: Showing structures, organs and their functional expressions (Bhavas) on the basis of [[Panchamahabhuta]].

{| class="wikitable"

|-

| Parthiv || Apya || Agneya || Vayaviya || Akashiya || Atmaja

|-

−

| Sthoola (solid), Sthira (fixed), Moortiman (visible), Guru (heavy), Khara (rough) and Kathin (hard) are Parthiva (Prithvi Tatva pradhan), e.g. Nakha (nails), Asthi (bones), Danta (teeth), Mamsa (muscle), Charma (skin), Varchas (feces), Kesha (hair), Smashru (beard), Loma (body hair), Kandara (tendons), Gandha (smell) and also the olfactory sensory are parthiv (prithvi guna pradhan). || Drava(liquid), Sara (liquidous), Manda (slow), Snigdha(unctuous), Mradu (soft) &Pichchhal(viscous)Guna pradhan; Rasa (plasma), Rakta (blood), Vasa (fat), Kapha (anabolic humor type), Pitta (catabolic humor type), ~~Mootra~~ (urine) and Sweda (sweat) and ~~alsothe~~ taste(rasa) & taste sensory organ. || Pitta (catabolic humor type), Ushma,(heat),Bha (Shining), Roopa(photo)&vision sensory are agneya. || Uchchhwas (inspiration), Praswas (expiration), Unmesh (opening of eye), Nimesh (closing of eye), Akunchan (flexion), Prasarana (extention), Gamana (movement), Prerana (expulsion), Dharana (retention), Sparsha (touch), & touch sensory organ. || ViviktaAvayava (spacefull structures with openings),major and minor Srotasas, sound& hearing sensory organs. || Pradhan (Jivatma),Buddhi (intellect) &~~Mana~~ (psyche).

+

| Sthoola (solid), Sthira (fixed), Moortiman (visible), Guru (heavy), Khara (rough) and Kathin (hard) are Parthiva (Prithvi Tatva pradhan), e.g. Nakha (nails), [[Asthi]] (bones), Danta (teeth), [[Mamsa]] (muscle), Charma (skin), Varchas (feces), Kesha (hair), Smashru (beard), Loma (body hair), Kandara (tendons), Gandha (smell) and also the olfactory sensory are parthiv (prithvi guna pradhan). || Drava(liquid), Sara (liquidous), Manda (slow), Snigdha(unctuous), Mradu (soft) &Pichchhal(viscous)Guna pradhan; [[Rasa]] (plasma), [[Rakta]] (blood), Vasa (fat), [[Kapha]] (anabolic humor type), [[Pitta]] (catabolic humor type), [[Mutra]] (urine) and Sweda (sweat) and also the taste(rasa) & taste sensory organ. || [[Pitta]] (catabolic humor type), Ushma,(heat),Bha (Shining), Roopa(photo)&vision sensory are agneya. || Uchchhwas (inspiration), Praswas (expiration), Unmesh (opening of eye), Nimesh (closing of eye), Akunchan (flexion), Prasarana (extention), Gamana (movement), Prerana (expulsion), Dharana (retention), Sparsha (touch), & touch sensory organ. || ViviktaAvayava (spacefull structures with openings),major and minor Srotasas, sound& hearing sensory organs. || Pradhan (Jivatma),[[Buddhi]] (intellect) & [[Manas]] (psyche).

|-

|}

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*When ''deha paramanu'' is put on review we find that Charaka was of clear opinion that like the house is built by the countless number of bricks similarly body is also built by the structural and functional units to which he has referred as ''deha paramanu''. Because Charaka has referred them as ''shariravayava'', as such the same can only be said as structural and functional unit of the body. At this point modern cell theory is quotable, which reveals that, a) all living things are made of cells, and b) smallest living unit of an organism is the cell and cells arise from pre-existing cells only. Designation given by Charaka as ''deha paramanu'' by its meaning refers to all three features of cell theory as above. Charaka has presented the features of ''deha paramanu'', saying that they are ''aparisankhyeya'' (innumerable), ''atibahuta'' (abundant), ''atisukshma'' (microscopic) and ''atindriya'' (unperceivable from common eyes). This equates it with modern cell theory. Modern theory has only one different point, i.e. cells arise from pre-existing cells only, which is also equitable with ''beeja'' and ''beejabhaga'' theory of Charaka.

−

*It is further described that for all types of ''samyoga'' and ''vibhaga'' the responsible factors are two, i.e. ''vayu'' and ''karmaswabhava''. In this account ''vayu'' can be referred for functional proteins (enzymes). Enzymes function to catalyze all type of metabolic functions in the body. In other words, it can be said that any type of biochemical change in the body can not be caused without the mediation of an enzyme. As such enzymes are the operators of life processes. The same is said about the ''vayu'' (''yatra vayuna niyante tatra gachchhanti vegavata'' (''pitta'' and ''kapha'' are moved by ''vata'' like the clouds move in the direction of wind)). Similarly, ''karmaswabhava'' can be evaluated. ''Karmaswabhava'' means ''karma'' of ''swabhava'' or the action of ''swabhava''. ''Swabhava'' can be referred for genetic code. As ''vayu'' is a biological entity and has the fixity of properties similarly genetic code is also a fixed entity. It is basically universal (except for mitochondria). This is what, we can say it a basic natural force, a law of nature which operates the organic world. Modern science believes that enzymes directly control the changes in the body (metabolism) and genetic code regulates the development and function of the cell or an organism.

+

*It is further described that for all types of ''samyoga'' and ''vibhaga'' the responsible factors are two, i.e. ''vayu'' and ''karmaswabhava''. In this account ''vayu'' can be referred for functional proteins (enzymes). Enzymes function to catalyze all type of metabolic functions in the body. In other words, it can be said that any type of biochemical change in the body can not be caused without the mediation of an enzyme. As such enzymes are the operators of life processes. The same is said about the ''vayu'' (''yatra vayuna niyante tatra gachchhanti vegavata'' (''[[pitta]]'' and ''[[kapha]]'' are moved by ''[[vata]]'' like the clouds move in the direction of wind)). Similarly, ''karmaswabhava'' can be evaluated. ''Karmaswabhava'' means ''karma'' of ''swabhava'' or the action of ''swabhava''. ''Swabhava'' can be referred for genetic code. As ''vayu'' is a biological entity and has the fixity of properties similarly genetic code is also a fixed entity. It is basically universal (except for mitochondria). This is what, we can say it a basic natural force, a law of nature which operates the organic world. Modern science believes that enzymes directly control the changes in the body (metabolism) and genetic code regulates the development and function of the cell or an organism.

*Genetic code: Genetic code<ref> E.D.P. De Robartis, Cell &Molecular Biology,2006 edition, Saunders, Philadelphia </ref> has nine features, i.e. sensibility, universality, unambiguity, redundancy, non-delimited/comma-less, no overlapping, decipherability, collinearity and start and stop codons.1) Sensibility: 3 Nucleotides code for one amino acid. 2) Universality: Same code used by all the organism except for mitochondria.3) Unambiguity: Means specificity, each triplet has only one meaning, specifying to particular amino acid. 4) Redundancy: Some amino acids are coded by more than one codons, (61 for 20 Amino acids, total codons are 64 but only 61 codons code for AA rest are start and stop codons). 5) Comma-less: Punctuationless, means no spaces between words (codons), technical cause of frame shift mutation. 6) Non-overlapping: No overlapping in the sequence of codons 7) Decipherability: Codons are decipherable. 8) Collinearity: sequence in mRNA is perfectly compatible with amino acid sequence in finished protein. 9) Start and stop code: Initiation and termination codons are essential factors- “Start” = AUG (initiation codon), and “Stop” = UAA, UAG, and UGA (termination codon). [17]

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