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{{#seo:

|title=Atreyabhadrakapyiya Adhyaya

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|keywords=Pharmacology, Rasa (taste), guna (quality), veerya (energy or potency of active drug molecule), vipaka (metabolite), prabhava (specific principle), mahabhuta, therapeutic value, ~~ayurveda~~, charak samhita

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|keywords=Pharmacology, Rasa (taste), guna (quality), veerya (energy or potency of active drug molecule), vipaka (metabolite), prabhava (specific principle), mahabhuta, therapeutic value, Ayurveda, Indian system of medicine, charak samhita.

|description=Sutra Sthana Chapter 26. Pharmacological principles of wholesome and unwholesome diet

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|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg

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|image_alt=carak samhita

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|type=article

}}

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<big>'''Sutra Sthana Chapter 26. Pharmacological principles of wholesome and unwholesome diet '''</big>

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~~<big>'''Abstract'''</big>~~

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<div style="text-align:justify;">The significance of wholesome (hita, pathya) and unwholesome (ahita, apathya) foods was dealt in the previous chapter (Yajjah Purushiya). The present chapter named after Lord Atreya and a renowned sage Bhadrakapya, certain concepts and pharmacological principles explain the effects of beneficial (hita) and harmful food and substances (ahita ahara/dravyas). The discussion on "correlation between rasa (taste) and diet (ahara)" is documented here. Principles of Ayurvedic pharmacology like rasa (taste), veerya (potency), guna (quality), vipaka (metabolite) and prabhava (specific principle) are discussed to understand the mechanism of action of food and drugs. The effect can be perceived through minute observation of the physiological changes occurring after interaction in the body. Six perceived tastes, adverse effects of their excessive consumption are described. Certain food articles and their combination are incompatible to the body and lead to disease due to their antagonistic properties. These are categorized under viruddha (incompatible or antagonistic). This important concept is described to know about the possible food: drug::body interactions and their adverse effects. </div>

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'''Keywords''': Pharmacology, ''Rasa'' (taste), ''guna'' (quality), ''veerya'' (energy or potency of active drug molecule), ''vipaka'' (metabolite), ''prabhava'' (specific principle), ''mahabhuta,'' therapeutic value.

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~~</div>~~

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{{Infobox

|title = Atreyabhadrakapyiya Adhyaya

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|label5 = Other Sections

|data5 = [[Nidana Sthana]], [[Vimana Sthana]], [[Sharira Sthana]], [[Indriya Sthana]], [[Chikitsa Sthana]], [[Kalpa Sthana]], [[Siddhi Sthana]]

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|label6 = Translator and commentator

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|data6 = Dubey S.D., Singh A.N., Singh A., [[Yogesh Deole|Deole Y. S.]]

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|label7 = Reviewer

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|data7 = Nishteswar K., Sirdeshpande M.K.

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|label8 = Editors

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|data8 = Sirdeshpande M.K., [[Yogesh Deole|Deole Y.S.]], [[Gopal Basisht|Basisht G.]]

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|label9 = Year of publication

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|data9 = 2020

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|label10 = Publisher

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|data10 = [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre]]

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|label11 = DOI

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|data11 = [https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s01.028 10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s01.028]

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}}

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<big>'''Abstract'''</big>

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<p style='text-align:justify;'>The significance of wholesome (hita, pathya) and unwholesome (ahita, apathya) foods was dealt in the previous chapter (Yajjah Purushiya). The present chapter named after Lord Atreya and a renowned sage Bhadrakapya, certain concepts and pharmacological principles explain the effects of beneficial (hita) and harmful food and substances (ahita ahara/dravyas). The discussion on "correlation between [[rasa]] (taste) and diet ([[ahara]])" is documented here. Principles of Ayurvedic pharmacology like [[rasa]] (taste), [[veerya]] (potency), [[guna]] (quality), [[vipaka]] (metabolite) and [[prabhava]] (specific principle) are discussed to understand the mechanism of action of food and drugs. The effect can be perceived through minute observation of the physiological changes occurring after interaction in the body. Six perceived tastes, adverse effects of their excessive consumption are described. Certain food articles and their combination are incompatible to the body and lead to disease due to their antagonistic properties. These are categorized under viruddha (incompatible or antagonistic). This important concept is described to know about the possible food: drug::body interactions and their adverse effects. </p>

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'''Keywords''': Pharmacology, Rasa (taste), [[guna]](quality), veerya (energy or potency of active drug molecule), vipaka (metabolite), ''prabhava'' (specific principle), [[panchamahabhuta]], therapeutic value.

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</div>

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}}

== Introduction ==

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The scope of [[Ayurveda]] was envisaged by the acharyas under three key principles: ~~''hetujnana''~~ (knowledge of etiology), ''lingajnana'' (symptomatology) and ''aushadhajnana'' (knowledge of therapeutics). Etiology includes the immediate and distant causes of diseases. Symptomatology includes the signs and symptoms of diseases and health. In continuation of the series on ''annapana chatushka'' (tetrad on dietetics), the present chapter is on understanding the basic principles of Ayurvedic pharmacology (''aushadhajnana''). ''Aushadhajnana'' encompasses materia medica and therapeutics. ''Dravya'' (matter), ''guna'' (quality), ''karma'' (action), ''samanya'' (that which results in similarity), ''vishesha'' (that which results in exclusivity) and ''samavaya'' (inseparable or permanent relationship or concomitance) constitute ''karana'' (causes, reasons or means) for achieving good health by restoration of ''dhatu samyata'' (equilibrium of ''dosha,'' tissue elements).

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The scope of [[Ayurveda]] was envisaged by the acharyas under three key principles: [[hetu]]jnana(knowledge of etiology), lingajnana (symptomatology) and aushadhajnana (knowledge of therapeutics). Etiology includes the immediate and distant causes of diseases. Symptomatology includes the signs and symptoms of diseases and health. In continuation of the series on ''annapana chatushka'' (tetrad on dietetics), the present chapter is on understanding the basic principles of Ayurvedic pharmacology (''aushadhajnana''). ''Aushadhajnana'' encompasses materia medica and therapeutics. ''[[Dravya]]'' (matter), [[guna]] (quality), ''[[karma]]'' (action), ''[[samanya]]'' (that which results in similarity), ''[[vishesha]]'' (that which results in exclusivity) and ''[[samavaya]]'' (inseparable or permanent relationship or concomitance) constitute ''[[karana]]'' (causes, reasons or means) for achieving good health by restoration of [[dhatu]] samyata (equilibrium of [[dosha]], tissue elements).

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''~~Dravyas~~'' are of three categories - some alleviate ~~''doshas~~,'' some vitiate ~~''dhatus~~,'' and some are good for the maintenance of positive health. ''~~Dravyas~~'' act with the help of their inherent qualities (''guna''). ''Dravya'' acts by its nature or with the help of its inherent qualities. It is emphasized that no medicine should be prescribed for incurable diseases and curable conditions should be treated with ''bheshaja'' (medicine) possessing opposite qualities (to those of the conditions being treated), administered with due regard to ''desha'' (the area or region where the drugs are produced or collected), ''matra'' (appropriate dose) and ''kala'' (seasonal variations as well as the age of the patient). The success of the treatment primarily depends on the principles involved in processing and prescribing the drugs that are collectively called ''paradi ~~gunas''~~ (10 general attributes). The key factor responsible for the manifestation of the effect of the drug is referred to as ''veerya''. ''Veerya'' is the power that performs ''karya'' (work or activity). The site of action of one drug is referred as ''adhikarana'', and bodily components like ''dosha, dhatu, mala, agni, srotas'' and mind may be considered as ''adhisthanas''. ''Upaya'' indicates the mode of administration and the consequent outcome of the ''upaya'' is ''phalam'' (which ideally should be the restoration of equilibrium of all the functions of body and mind). About principles of drug action ''rasa, guna, veerya, vipaka'' and ''prabhava'' are considered to be the prime factors that trigger the drug’s actions. This is referred to as ~~''gunaprabhava''~~ (literally, effects of the qualities).

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''[[Dravya]]s'' are of three categories - some alleviate [[dosha]],some vitiate [[dhatu]],and some are good for the maintenance of positive health. ''[[Dravya]]s'' act with the help of their inherent qualities ([[guna]]). ''[[Dravya]]'' acts by its nature or with the help of its inherent qualities. It is emphasized that no medicine should be prescribed for incurable diseases and curable conditions should be treated with ''bheshaja'' (medicine) possessing opposite qualities (to those of the conditions being treated), administered with due regard to ''[[desha]]'' (the area or region where the drugs are produced or collected), ''matra'' (appropriate dose) and ''[[kala]]'' (seasonal variations as well as the age of the patient). The success of the treatment primarily depends on the principles involved in processing and prescribing the drugs that are collectively called paradi [[guna]] (10 general attributes). The key factor responsible for the manifestation of the effect of the drug is referred to as ''[[veerya]]''. ''[[Veerya]]'' is the power that performs ''karya'' (work or activity). The site of action of one drug is referred as ''adhikarana'', and bodily components like ''[[dosha]], [[dhatu]], [[mala]], [[agni]], [[srotas]]'' and mind may be considered as ''adhisthanas''. ''Upaya'' indicates the mode of administration and the consequent outcome of the ''upaya'' is ''phalam'' (which ideally should be the restoration of equilibrium of all the functions of body and mind). About principles of drug action [[rasa]], [[guna]], [[veerya]], [[vipaka]] and ''[[prabhava]]'' are considered to be the prime factors that trigger the drug’s actions. This is referred to as guna prabhava(literally, effects of the qualities).

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''~~Rasas~~,'' or tastes, are of six types: ''madhura'' (sweet), ''amla'' (sour), ''lavana'' (saline), ''katu'' (pungent), ''tikta'' (bitter), and ''kashaya'' (astringent).

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''[[Rasa]]s,'' or tastes, are of six types: ''madhura'' (sweet), ''amla'' (sour), ''lavana'' (saline), ''katu'' (pungent), ''tikta'' (bitter), and ''kashaya'' (astringent).

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~~''Gunas''~~, or qualities, are of twenty types: ''guru'' (heavy), ''laghu'' (light), ''manda'' (dull, slow), ''tikshna'' (sharp, fast), ''hima'' (cold), ''ushna'' (hot), ''snigdha'' (unctuous or greasy), ''ruksha'' (dry), ''shlakshna'' (smooth, slippery), ''khara'' (coarse), ''sandra'' (coagulating or solidifying), ''mridu'' (soft), ''kathina'' (hard), ''sthira'' (immobile, static), ''sara'' (movable), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''sthula'' (grossness), ''vishada'' (cleansing) and ''pichchila'' (sticky, gluey), and ''drava'' (liquidity).

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[[Guna]], or qualities, are of twenty types: ''guru'' (heavy), ''laghu'' (light), ''manda'' (dull, slow), ''tikshna'' (sharp, fast), ''hima'' (cold), ''ushna'' (hot), ''snigdha'' (unctuous or greasy), ''ruksha'' (dry), ''shlakshna'' (smooth, slippery), ''khara'' (coarse), ''sandra'' (coagulating or solidifying), ''mridu'' (soft), ''kathina'' (hard), ''sthira'' (immobile, static), ''sara'' (movable), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''sthula'' (grossness), ''vishada'' (cleansing) and ''pichchila'' (sticky, gluey), and ''drava'' (liquidity).

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''Veerya'' is either of two ~~''gunas''~~ (sheeta and ushna) or eight ~~''gunas''~~: ''guru, snigdha, hima, mridu, laghu, ruksha, ushna,''and ''tikshana''.

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[[Veerya]] is either of two [[guna]] (sheeta and ushna) or eight [[guna]]:guru, snigdha, hima, mridu, laghu, ruksha, ushna, and tikshana.

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''Vipaka'' is expressed in the form of either two ~~''gunas''~~ (''guru'' and ''laghu''), or three ''~~rasas~~'' (''madhura, amla,''and ''katu'').

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''[[Vipaka]]'' is expressed in the form of either two [[guna]] (''guru'' and ''laghu''), or three ''[[rasa]]s'' (''madhura, amla,''and ''katu'').

</div>

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==Sanskrit text, Transliteration and English Translation==

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Once Atreya, Bhadrakapya (descendant of Shakunta), Purnakshasha (descendant of Mudgala), Hiranyaksha (the descendant of Kushika), Kumarashira, Bharadwaja, the pious one, Varyovida, the king and the excellent among the wise, Nimi, the king of Videha; Badisha, the great scholar; Kankayana Bahlika, the excellent among the physicians of Bahlika – these great sages, advanced in scholarship, age and self-control- went to the beautiful forest of Chaitraratha on a pleasure trip. While sitting there, they engaged in a historic dialogue on the correlation between ''rasa'' and diet. [3-7]

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Once Atreya, Bhadrakapya (descendant of Shakunta), Purnakshasha (descendant of Mudgala), Hiranyaksha (the descendant of Kushika), Kumarashira, Bharadwaja, the pious one, Varyovida, the king and the excellent among the wise, Nimi, the king of Videha; Badisha, the great scholar; Kankayana Bahlika, the excellent among the physicians of Bahlika – these great sages, advanced in scholarship, age and self-control- went to the beautiful forest of Chaitraratha on a pleasure trip. While sitting there, they engaged in a historic dialogue on the correlation between ''[[rasa]]'' and diet. [3-7]

</div>

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==== Discussion on rasa ====

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==== Discussion on [[rasa]] ====

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“There is only one ''rasa''”, said Bhadrakapya, “which is one of the five sense objects, being the object of gustatory organ, and not different from water". “Two ''rasas''”, said the brahmana descendant of Shakunta, “and these are eliminating and pacifying”. "Three ''rasas''”, said Purnakaksha, the descendant of Mudgala, “such as eliminating, pacifying and general (having both properties)". "Four ''rasas''” said Hiranyaksha, the descendant of Kushika, “such as palatable wholesome, palatable unwholesome, impalatable wholesome and impalatable unwholesome." “Five ''rasas''”, said Kumarashira Bharadwaja, “such as derived from the five basic elements- ~~''bhumi~~, ~~udaka~~, agni, vayu'' and ~~''ankasha''"~~. “Six ''rasas''”, said Vayorvida, the king sage, “such as heavy, light, cold, hot, unctuous and rough”. “Seven ''rasas''”, said Nimi, (the king) of Videha, “such as sweet, sour, saline, pungent, bitter, astringent and alkaline”. "Eight ''rasas''", said Badisha, belonging to the clan of Dhamargava, “such as sweet, sour, saline, pungent bitter, astringent, alkaline and unmanifested". “''Rasas'' are innumerable”, said Kankayana, the physician of Bahlika, “because factors like substratum (substance), property, action and taste are innumerable". [8]

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“There is only one ''rasa''”, said Bhadrakapya, “which is one of the five sense objects, being the object of gustatory organ, and not different from water". “Two ''rasas''”, said the brahmana descendant of Shakunta, “and these are eliminating and pacifying”. "Three ''rasas''”, said Purnakaksha, the descendant of Mudgala, “such as eliminating, pacifying and general (having both properties)". "Four ''rasas''” said Hiranyaksha, the descendant of Kushika, “such as palatable wholesome, palatable unwholesome, impalatable wholesome and impalatable unwholesome." “Five ''rasas''”, said Kumarashira Bharadwaja, “such as derived from the five basic elements- [[prithvi]], [[jala]], [[agni]], [[vayu]] and [[akasha]]. “Six ''rasas''”, said Vayorvida, the king sage, “such as heavy, light, cold, hot, unctuous and rough”. “Seven ''rasas''”, said Nimi, (the king) of Videha, “such as sweet, sour, saline, pungent, bitter, astringent and alkaline”. "Eight ''rasas''", said Badisha, belonging to the clan of Dhamargava, “such as sweet, sour, saline, pungent bitter, astringent, alkaline and unmanifested". “''Rasas'' are innumerable”, said Kankayana, the physician of Bahlika, “because factors like substratum (substance), property, action and taste are innumerable". [8]

</div>

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(After this) Lord Punarvasu Atreya said, "''Rasas'' are only six: ''madhura'' (sweet), ''amla'' (sour), ''lavana'' (saline), ''katu'' (pungent), ''tikta'' (bitter) and ''kashaya'' (astringent). Their primordial source is water. Elimination and pacification the two actions, in moderate both being mixed up. Palatability or otherwise are subjective likings. Wholesome and unwholesome are effects. The products of five ~~''mahabhutas''~~ (~~''bhumi~~, ~~udaka~~, agni, vayu'' and ~~''ankasha''~~) are actually the substratum of ''rasas'' dependent on the natural composition, products, preparation, place and time. Heavy, light, cold, hot, unctuous, rough, etc. are the properties residing in those substrata known as ''dravya'' (substance or drug). ''Kshara'' is called such because of ''ksharana'' (having been poured out or having corrosive action). It is not a ''rasa'', but a ''dravya'' (substance) having been derived from many ''rasas'' and having the amalgamations of many ''rasas'' - predominantly ''katu'' (pungent) and ''lavana'' (saline) - and produced by a particular method of preparation. Unmanifestedness is there in primordial source of ''rasa,'' ''anurasa'' (secondary ''rasa'') and in the substance having ''anurasa''. Countlessness of ''rasas'' because of countlessness of factors like substratum etc. is not a convincing hypothesis because even a single ''rasa'' is attached to innumerable factors like substratum etc. and yet it does not forego its identity. Even in cases of combinations of ''rasas,'' there is no innumerableness of its primordial source, natural properties and actions. That is why the intelligent ones do not describe the action of the combined ''rasas''. Based on this fact, (I) will describe the characters of uncombined six ''rasas'' separately.” [9]

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(After this) Lord Punarvasu Atreya said, "''Rasas'' are only six: ''madhura'' (sweet), ''amla'' (sour), ''lavana'' (saline), ''katu'' (pungent), ''tikta'' (bitter) and ''kashaya'' (astringent). Their primordial source is water. Elimination and pacification the two actions, in moderate both being mixed up. Palatability or otherwise are subjective likings. Wholesome and unwholesome are effects. The products of five [[mahabhuta]] ([[prithvi]], [[jala]], [[agni]], [[vayu]] and [[akasha]]) are actually the substratum of ''rasas'' dependent on the natural composition, products, preparation, place and time. Heavy, light, cold, hot, unctuous, rough, etc. are the properties residing in those substrata known as ''dravya'' (substance or drug). ''Kshara'' is called such because of ''ksharana'' (having been poured out or having corrosive action). It is not a ''rasa'', but a ''dravya'' (substance) having been derived from many ''rasas'' and having the amalgamations of many ''rasas'' - predominantly ''katu'' (pungent) and ''lavana'' (saline) - and produced by a particular method of preparation. Unmanifestedness is there in primordial source of ''rasa,'' ''anurasa'' (secondary ''rasa'') and in the substance having ''anurasa''. Countlessness of ''rasas'' because of countlessness of factors like substratum etc. is not a convincing hypothesis because even a single ''rasa'' is attached to innumerable factors like substratum etc. and yet it does not forego its identity. Even in cases of combinations of ''rasas,'' there is no innumerableness of its primordial source, natural properties and actions. That is why the intelligent ones do not describe the action of the combined ''rasas''. Based on this fact, (I) will describe the characters of uncombined six ''rasas'' separately.” [9]

</div>

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“First of all, I will tell something about the drugs. In this context, a drug constitutes of five bhutas: [[prithvi]], [[apa]], [[tejas]], [[vayu]] and [[akasha]]. It is (of two types) sentient and insentient. Its properties are ''shabda'' etc. and those from ''guru'' to ''drava'', and its action are said to be five-fold-''vamana'' etc”. [10]

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“First of all, I will tell something about the drugs. In this context, a drug constitutes of five bhutas: [[prithvi]], [[apa]], [[tejas]], [[vayu]] and [[akasha]]. It is (of two types) sentient and insentient. Its properties are ''shabda'' etc. and those from ''guru'' to ''drava'', and its action are said to be five-fold-[[vamana]] etc”. [10]

</div>

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</div></div>

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''Dravyas'' (drugs) which have properties of ''guru'' (heavy), ''khara'' (coarse), ''kathina'' (hard), ''manda'' (slow), ''sthira'' (stable), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''sandra'' (solid), ''sthula'' (gross) possess the predominant ''gandha guna'' of ''parthiva'' (i.e., primarily made up of ''prithvi ~~bhuta''~~) exert actions like ''upachaya'' (development), ''sanghata'' (compactness), ''gaurava'' (heaviness) and ''sthairya'' (firmness).

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''Dravyas'' (drugs) which have properties of ''guru'' (heavy), ''khara'' (coarse), ''kathina'' (hard), ''manda'' (slow), ''sthira'' (stable), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''sandra'' (solid), ''sthula'' (gross) possess the predominant ''gandha guna'' of ''parthiva'' (i.e., primarily made up of [[prithvi mahabhuta]]) exert actions like ''upachaya'' (development), ''sanghata'' (compactness), ''gaurava'' (heaviness) and ''sthairya'' (firmness).

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Those having properties of ''drava'' (liquid), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''sheeta'' (cold), ''manda'' (slow), ''mridu'' (soft), ''pichchila'' (slimy) and the predominant rasa is ''apya'' (i.e., constituting primarily of ~~''apa'' ''bhuta''~~) exert actions like ''upakleda'' (moistening), sneha (unction), bandha (binding), vishyanda (oozing), mardava (softening) and pralhad (exhilaration).

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Those having properties of ''drava'' (liquid), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''sheeta'' (cold), ''manda'' (slow), ''mridu'' (soft), ''pichchila'' (slimy) and the predominant rasa is ''apya'' (i.e., constituting primarily of [[jala mahabhuta]]) exert actions like ''upakleda'' (moistening), sneha (unction), bandha (binding), vishyanda (oozing), mardava (softening) and pralhad (exhilaration).

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''Dravyas'' with properties of ''ushna'' (hot), ''tikshna'' (sharp), ''sukshma'' (minute), ''laghu'' (light), ''ruksha'' (rough), ''vishada'' (non-slimy) and predominant ''rupa'' is ''agneya'' (i.e., constituting primarily of ''agni'' (~~''tejas bhuta''~~)) produce ''daha'' (burning/heat), ''paka'' (digestion), ''prabha'' (luster), ''prakash'' (light) and ''varna'' (complexion).

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''Dravyas'' with properties of ''ushna'' (hot), ''tikshna'' (sharp), ''sukshma'' (minute), ''laghu'' (light), ''ruksha'' (rough), ''vishada'' (non-slimy) and predominant ''rupa'' is ''agneya'' (i.e., constituting primarily of ''agni'' ([[agni mahabhuta]])) produce ''daha'' (burning/heat), ''paka'' (digestion), ''prabha'' (luster), ''prakash'' (light) and ''varna'' (complexion).

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''Dravyas'' having properties of ''laghu'' (light), ''sheeta'' (cold), ''ruksha'' (rough), ''khara'' (coarse), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''sukshma'' (minute) and the predominant ''sparsha'' is ''vayavya'' (i.e., primarily made up of ''vayu ~~bhuta''~~). They produce actions of ''raukshya'' (roughness), ''glani'' (depression), ''vichara'' (movement), ''vaishdya'' (non-sliminess) and ''laghava'' (lightness).

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''Dravyas'' having properties of ''laghu'' (light), ''sheeta'' (cold), ''ruksha'' (rough), ''khara'' (coarse), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''sukshma'' (minute) and the predominant ''sparsha'' is ''vayavya'' (i.e., primarily made up of [[vayu mahabhuta]]). They produce actions of ''raukshya'' (roughness), ''glani'' (depression), ''vichara'' (movement), ''vaishdya'' (non-sliminess) and ''laghava'' (lightness).

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''Dravyas'' having predominance in the properties of ''mridu'' (soft), ''laghu'' (light), ''sukshma'' (minute), ''shlakshna'' (smooth)and the predominantly ''shabda'' are ''akashiya'' (constituted predominantly of ''akasha ~~bhuta''~~). They exert actions of softening, hollowing and making light. [11]

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''Dravyas'' having predominance in the properties of ''mridu'' (soft), ''laghu'' (light), ''sukshma'' (minute), ''shlakshna'' (smooth)and the predominantly ''shabda'' are ''akashiya'' (constituted predominantly of [[akasha mahabhuta]]). They exert actions of softening, hollowing and making light. [11]

</div>

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==== Existance of [[panchamahabhuta]] in universe =====

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==== Existance of [[panchamahabhuta]] in universe ====

अनेनोपदेशेन नानौषधिभूतं जगति किञ्चिद्द्रव्यमुपलभ्यते

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</div></div>

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On this basis, there is no substance in the universe which cannot be used as a medicinal drug, on the condition that they are used with rational method and with a definite objective. [12]

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On this basis, there is no substance in the universe which cannot be used as a medicinal drug, on the condition that they are used with rational method and with a definite objective. [12]

=== Description of drug action ===

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=== Description of the concept of rasa ===

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==== Combinations of rasa ====

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==== Combinations of [[rasa]] ====

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</div></div>

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Thus, the scholars of ''rasa'', have mentioned fifty-seven combinations and sixty-three forms of ''rasas'' (after adding six pure forms of ''rasas'' in fifty-seven combinations) on the basis of their applicability. [24]

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Thus, the scholars of ''[[rasa]]'', have mentioned fifty-seven combinations and sixty-three forms of ''rasas'' (after adding six pure forms of ''rasas'' in fifty-seven combinations) on the basis of their applicability. [24]

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The physician, desirous of success, should administer ''rasas'', in pure forms or in combinations based on ~~''doshas''~~, drugs etc. In diseases, the wise physicians administer drugs made up of combinations of two or more ''rasas'' etc., and also the combined or single ''rasa'' separately (as required). [25-26]

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The physician, desirous of success, should administer ''rasas'', in pure forms or in combinations based on [[dosha]], drugs etc. In diseases, the wise physicians administer drugs made up of combinations of two or more ''rasas'' etc., and also the combined or single ''[[rasa]]'' separately (as required). [25-26]

</div>

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</div></div>

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One, who is conversant with the variations of ''rasas'' and ~~''doshas''~~, does not confuse in diagnosing the cause and symptoms of the disease and decide the course of treatment of diseases. [27]

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One, who is conversant with the variations of ''rasas'' and [[dosha]], does not confuse in diagnosing the cause and symptoms of the disease and decide the course of treatment of diseases. [27]

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</div></div>

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''Rasa'' is that which is perceived at first in dry form (of the substance). The contrary (perceived afterwards and drug in wet form) is known as ''anurasa'' (subsidiary taste). There is no seventh ''rasa'' (as unmanifested one). [28]

+

''Rasa'' is that which is perceived at first in dry form (of the substance). The contrary (perceived afterwards and drug in wet form) is known as ''anurasa'' (subsidiary taste). There is no seventh ''[[rasa]]'' (as unmanifested one). [28]

−

==== ''Guna'' (properties) ====

+

==== [[Guna]] (properties) ====

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''Paratva'' (excellence), ''aparatva'' (non-excellence), [[Apamarga Tanduliya Adhyaya#'''Yukti Pramana and Yuktivyapashraya Chikitsa(Rational therapeutics)'''|''yukti'' (rationale)]], ''sankhya'' (enumeration), ''samyoga'' (conjunction), ''vibhaga'' (disjunction), ''prithaktva'' (separateness), ''parimana'' (measurement), ''sanskara'' (processing) and ''abhyasa'' (practice): these properties are known as ''paradi'' (beginning with ''para''). They are the means of success (in treatment), I am explaining them with definitions.

−

''Paratva'' and ''aparatva'' are used in relation to place, time, age, measure, ''vipaka, veerya, rasa'' etc. ''Yukti'' is the rational planning (of therapeutic measures). ''Sankhya'' is mathematics (including statistics). Joining together (of entities) is ''samyoga''. This is of three types according to the active participation of both, all or one partner. It is non-eternal. ''Vibhaga'' is also of three types – ''vibhakti'' (excision), ''viyoga'' (disjoining) and ''bhagaso graha'' (division). ''Prithaktva'' is of three types: ''asamyoga'' (spatial separateness), ''vailaksanya'' (class separateness), and ''anekata'' (individual separateness). ''Parimana'' denotes measures (of all types, including weights). ''Samskara'' is processing. ''Abhyasa'' is regular use of substance, habituation and practice. Thus, all the ''paradi'' properties are described with their definitions, which if unknown, do not let the therapy proceed properly. [29-35]

+

''Paratva'' and ''aparatva'' are used in relation to place, time, age, measure, ''[[vipaka]], [[veerya]], [[rasa]]'' etc. ''[[Yukti]]'' is the rational planning (of therapeutic measures). ''Sankhya'' is mathematics (including statistics). Joining together (of entities) is ''samyoga''. This is of three types according to the active participation of both, all or one partner. It is non-eternal. ''Vibhaga'' is also of three types – ''vibhakti'' (excision), ''viyoga'' (disjoining) and ''bhagaso graha'' (division). ''Prithaktva'' is of three types: ''asamyoga'' (spatial separateness), ''vailaksanya'' (class separateness), and ''anekata'' (individual separateness). ''Parimana'' denotes measures (of all types, including weights). ''Samskara'' is processing. ''Abhyasa'' is regular use of substance, habituation and practice. Thus, all the ''paradi'' properties are described with their definitions, which if unknown, do not let the therapy proceed properly. [29-35]

</div>

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</div></div>

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Properties are not said to be located within properties (i.e., within themselves). Hence a physician should take the properties of ''~~rasas~~'' as those of ''~~dravyas~~'', taking into account the different intentions of the author. [36]

+

Properties are not said to be located within properties (i.e., within themselves). Hence a physician should take the properties of ''[[rasa]]s'' as those of ''[[dravya]]s'', taking into account the different intentions of the author. [36]

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</div></div>

−

Hence one should decide the meaning after knowing the context, the factors like place and time, author's intentions and the scriptural methods (like ''tantrayukti''). [37]

+

Hence one should decide the meaning after knowing the context, the factors like place and time, author's intentions and the scriptural methods (like ''[[tantrayukti]]''). [37]

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</div></div>

−

Hereafter, I will tell about the six divisions of ''rasa'' and also that the ''rasas'' have originated from the ~~five ''bhutas''~~. [38]

+

Hereafter, I will tell about the six divisions of ''[[rasa]]'' and also that the ''rasas'' have originated from the [[pancha mahabhuta]]. [38]

−

==== Origin and basic composition of rasa ====

+

==== Origin and basic composition of [[rasa]] ====

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−

Water is predominantly composed of soma (ap), generated in sky, naturally cold, light and having unmanifested rasas. This, while falling from the sky, gets endowed with the properties of five ~~bhutas~~ and thus dropped (on the ground) nourishes the physical forms of animals and plants. In this process, six rasas manifest in water. [39]

+

Water is predominantly composed of soma (apa), generated in sky, naturally cold, light and having unmanifested rasas. This, while falling from the sky, gets endowed with the properties of five [[ mahabhuta ]] and thus dropped (on the ground) nourishes the physical forms of animals and plants. In this process, six rasas manifest in water. [39]

</div>

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−

Of the six rasas, madhura rasa is produced by the predominance of soma (ap), amla by that of prithvi and agni, lavana by that of ap and agni, katu by that of vayu and agni, tikta by that of vayu and akasha, and kashaya by that of vayu and prithvi. Thus, the six manifestations of rasas take place according to shortage and excess of ~~mahabhutas~~ like various complexions and shapes in plants and animals. The shortage and excess of ~~mahabhutas~~ is possible due to kala (the time factor) having six seasons. [40]

+

Of the six rasas, madhura rasa is produced by the predominance of soma ([[apa]]), amla by that of [[prithvi]] and [[agni]], lavana by that of [[apa]] and [[agni]], katu by that of [[vayu]] and [[agni]], tikta by that of [[vayu]] and [[akasha]], and kashaya by that of [[vayu]] and [[prithvi]]. Thus, the six manifestations of rasas take place according to shortage and excess of [[mahabhuta]]s like various complexions and shapes in plants and animals. The shortage and excess of [[mahabhuta]] is possible due to kala (the time factor) having six seasons. [40]

</div>

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−

Amongst these, the ''rasas'' having ''agni'' and ''vayu'' often move upwards because of ~~''vayu’s''~~ property of lightness and rushing up and agni’s property of flaming up. Those predominant in ''apa'' and ''prithvi'' often move downwards due to heaviness of ''prithvi'' and downward moving tendency of ''apa'' (water). Those having mixed constitutions move both ways. [41]

+

Amongst these, the ''rasas'' having [[agni]] and [[vayu]] often move upwards because of [[vayu]]’s property of lightness and rushing up and agni’s property of flaming up. Those predominant in [[apa]] and [[prithvi]] often move downwards due to heaviness of [[prithvi]] and downward moving tendency of [[apa]] (water). Those having mixed constitutions move both ways. [41]

</div>

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</div></div>

−

Now I shall describe the properties and actions of each of the six ''~~rasas~~'' according to ''~~dravyas~~'' (which are their substrata). [42]

+

Now I shall describe the properties and actions of each of the six ''[[rasa]]s'' according to ''[[dravya]]s'' (which are their substrata). [42]

==== Actions of ''madhura rasa'' and effects of its excessive use ====

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Amongst the six ''rasas,'' the ''madhura rasa,'' because of its suitability to the body, promotes ''rasa, rakta, mamsa, ~~medas~~, asthi, majja,~~'' ''~~ojas'' and ''shukra''. It is also conducive to increasing the lifespan of the person, is pleasing to the six sense organs, promotes strength and lustre, alleviates ''pitta'' and ''vayu'', neutralizes poisons, and pacifies thirst and heat. It is beneficial for skin, hair, throat and strength and is nourishing, vitalizing, saturating, bulk-promoting and stabilizing. It promotes healing of wounds of the emaciated. It provides good feeling in nose, mouth, throat, lips and tongue; alleviates fainting, is most liked by the bees and ants, and is unctuous, cold and heavy.

+

Amongst the six ''rasas,'' the ''madhura rasa,'' because of its suitability to the body, promotes [[rasa dhatu]], [[rakta]],[[mamsa]], [[meda dhatu]], [[asthi dhatu]], [[majja dhatu]],[[ojas]] and [[shukra]]. It is also conducive to increasing the lifespan of the person, is pleasing to the six sense organs, promotes strength and lustre, alleviates [[pitta]] and [[vayu]], neutralizes poisons, and pacifies thirst and heat. It is beneficial for skin, hair, throat and strength and is nourishing, vitalizing, saturating, bulk-promoting and stabilizing. It promotes healing of wounds of the emaciated. It provides good feeling in nose, mouth, throat, lips and tongue; alleviates fainting, is most liked by the bees and ants, and is unctuous, cold and heavy.

This ''rasa,'' though having so many qualities, if used singly and excessively, causes obesity, softness, laziness, excessive sleep, heaviness, loss of desire for food, poor digestion with mildness of appetite, abnormal growth in mouth and throat, dyspnea, cough, coryza, ''alasaka'', fever with shivering, hardness in bowels, sweetness in mouth, vomiting, loss of consciousness and voice, goitre, cervical adenitis, filariasis, pharyngitis, (mucous) coating in bladder, arteries and throat, eye diseases, conjunctivitis etc. [43.1]

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−

''Amla rasa'' makes food relishing, stimulates ''agni,'' enhances body bulk and energizes it, awakens the mind, firms the sense organs, increases ''bala'' (strength), causes ''vatanulomana'' (normal movement of ''vata''), nourishes the heart, increases secretions in the mouth, propels, moistens, and digests food, gives satisfaction, and is light, hot and unctuous.

+

''Amla rasa'' makes food relishing, stimulates [[agni]], enhances body bulk and energizes it, awakens the mind, firms the sense organs, increases ''bala'' (strength), causes ''vatanulomana'' (normal movement of [[vata]]), nourishes the heart, increases secretions in the mouth, propels, moistens, and digests food, gives satisfaction, and is light, hot and unctuous.

−

This, though endowed with so many qualities, if used singly and excessively, makes teeth sensitive, causes thirst, causes closure of eyes, raises the body hair, liquifies ''kapha'', aggravates ''pitta'', affects blood morbidity, causes inflammation in muscles and laxity in body, produces swelling in wasted, injured, emaciated and debilitated persons, because of its ''agneya'' nature causes suppuration in wounds, injuries, bites, burns, fractures, swellings, dislocations, poisoned spots due to urination and contact of insects, compressed, excised, incised, punctured and crushed etc., and causes burning sensation in throat, chest and the cardiac region. [43.2]

+

This, though endowed with so many qualities, if used singly and excessively, makes teeth sensitive, causes thirst, causes closure of eyes, raises the body hair, liquifies [[kapha]], aggravates [[pitta]], affects blood morbidity, causes inflammation in muscles and laxity in body, produces swelling in wasted, injured, emaciated and debilitated persons, because of its ''agneya'' nature causes suppuration in wounds, injuries, bites, burns, fractures, swellings, dislocations, poisoned spots due to urination and contact of insects, compressed, excised, incised, punctured and crushed etc., and causes burning sensation in throat, chest and the cardiac region. [43.2]

</div>

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''Lavana rasa'' is digestive, moistening, appetizing, pouring, expectorant, mass-breaking, irritant, laxative, quickly spreading in body, oozing, space-creating, ''vata'' alleviating, diminishes stiffness, viscid, diminishes the perception of other tastes if added in excess, increases secretions in mouth, liquefies ''kapha'', cleanses channels, softens all the body-parts, gives relish to food, is a supplement of food. It is not very heavy, unctuous and hot.

+

''Lavana rasa'' is digestive, moistening, appetizing, pouring, expectorant, mass-breaking, irritant, laxative, quickly spreading in body, oozing, space-creating, [[vata]] alleviating, diminishes stiffness, viscid, diminishes the perception of other tastes if added in excess, increases secretions in mouth, liquefies [[kapha]], cleanses channels, softens all the body-parts, gives relish to food, is a supplement of food. It is not very heavy, unctuous and hot.

−

This, though having so many qualities, if used singly and excessively, vitiates ''pitta'', aggravates ''rakta'', causes thirst, fainting, heat, tearing, sloughing, increases leprosy and other skin diseases, aggravates poisons, weakens teeth, aggravates inflammations, impairs potency, hinders sense organs, gives rise to wrinkles, grey hair and baldness, and also produces disorders like internal hemorrhage, acid gastritis, erysipelas, ''vatarakta'', eczema, alopecia etc. [43.3]

+

This, though having so many qualities, if used singly and excessively, vitiates [[pitta]], aggravates [[rakta]], causes thirst, fainting, heat, tearing, sloughing, increases leprosy and other skin diseases, aggravates poisons, weakens teeth, aggravates inflammations, impairs potency, hinders sense organs, gives rise to wrinkles, grey hair and baldness, and also produces disorders like internal hemorrhage, acid gastritis, erysipelas, ''vatarakta'', eczema, alopecia etc. [43.3]

</div>

+

==== Actions of ''katu rasa'' and effects of its excessive use ====

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−

''Katu rasa'' cleanses mouth, stimulates digestion, absorbs food, causes secretion from the nose and eyes, makes the sense organs clear, alleviates ''alasaka'', swelling, corpulence, urticarial patches, blocked channels, unction, sweating, moisture and dirt, making food relishing, destroys itching, depresses wounds, kills germs, scrapes muscles, checks the coagulation of blood, cuts the bindings, expands the channels, pacifies ''kapha'', and is light, hot and rough.

+

''Katu rasa'' cleanses mouth, stimulates digestion, absorbs food, causes secretion from the nose and eyes, makes the sense organs clear, alleviates ''alasaka'', swelling, corpulence, urticarial patches, blocked channels, unction, sweating, moisture and dirt, making food relishing, destroys itching, depresses wounds, kills germs, scrapes muscles, checks the coagulation of blood, cuts the bindings, expands the channels, pacifies [[kapha]], and is light, hot and rough.

−

This though having so many properties, if used singly and excessively, can damage sexual potency due to the effect of ''vipaka,'' cause mental confusion, malaise, depression, emaciation, fainting, bending, feeling of darkness, giddiness, burning in throat, body-heat, loss of strength and thirst due to the effect of ''rasa'' and ''veerya'' and ''prabhava'', over and above, due to abundance of ''vayu'' and ''agni'', it produces ''vatika'' disorders in feet, hands, sides, back etc. particularly with symptoms like dizziness, burning pain, tremors, piercing and tearing pains. [43.4]

+

This though having so many properties, if used singly and excessively, can damage sexual potency due to the effect of ''vipaka,'' cause mental confusion, malaise, depression, emaciation, fainting, bending, feeling of darkness, giddiness, burning in throat, body-heat, loss of strength and thirst due to the effect of ''rasa'' and ''veerya'' and ''prabhava'', over and above, due to abundance of [[vayu]] and [[agni]], it produces ''vatika'' disorders in feet, hands, sides, back etc. particularly with symptoms like dizziness, burning pain, tremors, piercing and tearing pains. [43.4]

</div>

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−

''Tikta rasa'', though itself non-relishing, enhances appetite, is anti-poison, anthelmintic, alleviates fainting, burning sensation, itching, skin disorders and thirst, provides firmness to skin and muscles, is antipyretic, appetizer, digestive, galactodepurant (i.e., an agent that cleanses any adverse reaction of milk), ''lekhana'' (making thin), absorbs moisture, reduces fat, muscle-fat, marrow, lymph, pus, sweat, urine, feces, ''pitta'' and ''kapha''; and is rough, cold and light.

+

''Tikta rasa'', though itself non-relishing, enhances appetite, is anti-poison, anthelmintic, alleviates fainting, burning sensation, itching, skin disorders and thirst, provides firmness to skin and muscles, is antipyretic, appetizer, digestive, galactodepurant (i.e., an agent that cleanses any adverse reaction of milk), ''lekhana'' (making thin), absorbs moisture, reduces fat, muscle-fat, marrow, lymph, pus, sweat, urine, feces, [[pitta]] and [[kapha]]; and is rough, cold and light.

−

This, though possessing so many qualities, if used singly and excessively, on account of its roughness, coarseness and non-sliminess, dries up ''rasa, rakta, mamsa, ~~medas~~, asthi, majja'' and ''shukra,'' causes coarseness in channels, takes away strength, produces emaciation, malaise, mental confusion, giddiness, dryness of mouth and other ''vatika'' disorders. [43.5]

+

This, though possessing so many qualities, if used singly and excessively, on account of its roughness, coarseness and non-sliminess, dries up [[rasa dhatu]], [[rakta dhatu]], [[mamsa dhatu]],[[meda dhatu]], [[asthi dhatu]], [[majja dhatu]] and [[shukra dhatu]], causes coarseness in channels, takes away strength, produces emaciation, malaise, mental confusion, giddiness, dryness of mouth and other ''vatika'' disorders. [43.5]

</div>

+

==== Actions of ''kashaya rasa'' and effects of its excessive use ====

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</div></div>

−

''Kashya rasa'' is pacifying, astringent, union-promoting, compressing, healing, absorbing, checking (discharges), pacifies ''kapha, rakta'' and ''pitta'', utilizes the body fluid, is rough, cold and slightly light.

+

''Kashya rasa'' is pacifying, astringent, union-promoting, compressing, healing, absorbing, checking (discharges), pacifies [[kapha]], [[rakta]] and [[pitta]], utilizes the body fluid, is rough, cold and slightly light.

This, though possessing so many qualities, if used singly and excessively, dries up mouth, causes heart-ache, it causes distended abdomen, obstructs speech, constricts body channels, darkens complexion, decreases reproductive potency, delays digestion, causes distension of abdomen, checks flatus, urine, feces and semen, produces emaciation, malaise, thirst, stiffness, and because of its coarseness, non-sliminess and roughness, causes ''vatika'' disorders like hemiplegia, spasm, convulsions, facial paralysis etc. [43]

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−

From the point of view of six prominent ~~''gunas''~~, the ''rasas'' have been positioned in three degree. Considering ''rukshatva'' (dryness), ''kashaya'' comes in the highest degree, ''katu'' in the medium degree and ''tikta'' in the lowest degree. Considering ''ushnatva'' (hotness), ''lavana'' comes on the top, ''amla'' in the middle, ''katuka'' on the bottom. From the point of view of ''snigdhatva'' (unctuousness), ''madhura'' is in the highest degree, ''amla'' in the middle and ''lavana'' in the lowest one.

+

From the point of view of six prominent [[guna]], the ''rasas'' have been positioned in three degree. Considering ''rukshatva'' (dryness), ''kashaya'' comes in the highest degree, ''katu'' in the medium degree and ''tikta'' in the lowest degree. Considering ''ushnatva'' (hotness), ''lavana'' comes on the top, ''amla'' in the middle, ''katuka'' on the bottom. From the point of view of ''snigdhatva'' (unctuousness), ''madhura'' is in the highest degree, ''amla'' in the middle and ''lavana'' in the lowest one.

Considering ''sheetatwa'' (coldness), ''madhura, kashaya'' and ''tikta'' come in order of superiority. Considering ''gurutva'' (heaviness), ''madhura'' comes in the highest degree, ''kashaya'' comes next, and ''lavana'' in the lowest degree. Considering ''laghutva'' (lightness), ''tikta'' comes on the top, then ''katu'' and lastly ''amla''. Some take ''lavana'' as the inferior one in the category light ''rasas''. Thus, ''lavana'' is placed in the lowest order considering both ''gaurava'' (heaviness) and ''laghutva'' (lightness). [53-56]

</div>

+

=== ''Vipaka'' (metabolites) ===

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−

''Katu vipaka'' impairs ''shukra'' (semen), obstructs (excretion of) faeces and urine and aggravates ''vata''. ''Madhura vipaka'' helps excretion of urine and faeces from the body, increases ''kapha'' and semen. ''Amla vipaka'' aggravates ''pitta'', helps excretion of faeces and urine and damages semen. Amongst them, ''madhura vipaka'' is ''guru'' (heavy) and the other two (''katu'' and ''amla'') ''vipakas'' are ''laghu''. [61-62]

+

''Katu vipaka'' impairs [[shukra]](semen), obstructs (excretion of) faeces and urine and aggravates [[vata]]. ''Madhura vipaka'' helps excretion of urine and faeces from the body, increases [[kapha]] and semen. ''Amla vipaka'' aggravates [[pitta]], helps excretion of faeces and urine and damages semen. Amongst them, ''madhura vipaka'' is ''guru'' (heavy) and the other two (''katu'' and ''amla'') ''vipakas'' are ''laghu''. [61-62]

</div>

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</div></div>

−

According to variations in ~~''gunas''~~ (properties) there is also variation in degree (lowest, medium and highest) of ''vipaka''. [63]

+

According to variations in [[guna]] (properties) there is also variation in degree (lowest, medium and highest) of ''vipaka''. [63]

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Some hold that there is eight-fold ''veerya'': ''mridu'' (soft), ''tikshna'' (sharp), ''guru'' (heavy), ''laghu'' (light), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''ruksha'' (rough), ''ushna'' (hot) and ''sheeta'' (cold) while some opine that there are only two ''veeryas'' : ''sheeta'' (cold) and ''ushna'' (hot). In fact, ''veerya'' (potency) is that which is responsible for each and every action. The substance can exert no action in absence of ''veerya'' and as such (it is concluded that) all actions are exerted due to ''veerya''. [64-65]

</div>

+

=== Characteristics of rasa, veerya, vipaka ===

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−

(For instance) just as ''chitraka'' is ''katu'' in ''rasa'' and ''vipaka'' and ''ushna'' in ''veerya'', similar is ''danti'' but the latter is purgative (while the former is not). Poison acts as antidote to poison, here also the cause is ''prabhava''. Likewise, the action of ''urdhwabhagahara'' (emetics) and ''anulomika'' (purgatives) is due to ''prabhava''. Various effects of gems worn (on the body) is also due to ''prabhava'', but their ''prabhava'' is incomprehenisble. Thus, ''vipaka, veerya'' and ''prabhava'' are explained well. Some drug acts by (means of) ''rasa'', other by ''veerya'' and other by ''guna, vipaka'' or ''prabhava''. In case of equality of strength, ''vipaka'' subdues ''rasa, veerya'' subdues both, and ''prabhava'' all these three. These are the natural relative degree of strength. [68-72]

+

(For instance) just as ''chitraka'' is ''katu'' in ''rasa'' and ''vipaka'' and ''ushna'' in ''veerya'', similar is ''danti'' but the latter is purgative (while the former is not). Poison acts as antidote to poison, here also the cause is ''prabhava''. Likewise, the action of ''urdhwabhagahara'' (emetics) and ''anulomika'' (purgatives) is due to ''prabhava''. Various effects of gems worn (on the body) is also due to ''prabhava'', but their ''prabhava'' is incomprehenisble. Thus, ''vipaka, veerya'' and ''prabhava'' are explained well. Some drug acts by (means of) ''rasa'', other by ''veerya'' and other by [[guna]], vipaka or ''prabhava''. In case of equality of strength, ''vipaka'' subdues ''rasa, veerya'' subdues both, and ''prabhava'' all these three. These are the natural relative degree of strength. [68-72]

</div>

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</div></div>

−

Having listened to this description by Lord Atreya, Agnivesha said, “Sir, we heard your factual and significant talk on ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma''. Now we want to hear not too brief description of the antagonistic food items”. [80]

+

Having listened to this description by Lord Atreya, Agnivesha said, “Sir, we heard your factual and significant talk on dravya, [[guna]] and karma. Now we want to hear not too brief description of the antagonistic food items”. [80]

=== Concept of viruddha (incompatibility or antagonism) ===

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</div></div>

−

Lord Atreya addressed to him – the substances which are contrary to ''deha-~~dhatus''~~ behave with ''virodha'' (antagonism) to them. This antagonism may be in terms of properties, combination, processing, place, time, dose etc. or natural composition. [81]

+

Lord Atreya addressed to him – the substances which are contrary to deha-[[dhatu]] behave with ''virodha'' (antagonism) to them. This antagonism may be in terms of properties, combination, processing, place, time, dose etc. or natural composition. [81]

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−

Having heard the statement of Atreya, Bhadrakapya said to Agnivesha, “one may take all types of fish alongwith milk except only one -''chilchima''. That scaly, red-eyed, with alround red strips, having shape like that of ''rohita'' often moves on land. If one takes it along with milk, he undoubtedly becomes victim of one of the disorders of ''rakta'' (blood) or ''vibandha'' (constipation) or death”. [83]

+

Having heard the statement of Atreya, Bhadrakapya said to Agnivesha, “one may take all types of fish alongwith milk except only one -''chilchima''. That scaly, red-eyed, with alround red strips, having shape like that of ''rohita'' often moves on land. If one takes it along with milk, he undoubtedly becomes victim of one of the disorders of [[rakta]] (blood) or ''vibandha'' (constipation) or death”. [83]

</div>

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−

That, which is antagonistic with respect to place, time, ''agni'', dose, suitability, ''dosha,'' processing, potency, bowels, health condition, order, contra-indication, indication, cooking, combination, palatability, richness (in properties), rules of eating, is considered unwholesome or unfit for human consumption.

+

That, which is antagonistic with respect to place, time, [[agni]], dose, suitability, [[dosha]], processing, potency, bowels, health condition, order, contra-indication, indication, cooking, combination, palatability, richness (in properties), rules of eating, is considered unwholesome or unfit for human consumption.

If in an arid zone rough and sharp substances, and in marshy region unctuous and cold ones are used, those would be known to be antagonistic in terms of place.

Likewise, if one takes rough and cold food in the winter and pungent and hot articles in the summer, it is antagonistic in terms of time.

−

Similar is the antagonism of food and drinks in four types of ''agni''.

+

Similar is the antagonism of food and drinks in four types of [[agni]].

Honey and ghee taken together in equal quantity is antagonistic in terms of dose.

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The use of sweet and cold substances by a person accustomed to pungent and hot is antagonism in terms of suitability.

−

Use of diet, drug and behaviour similar to ~~''doshas''~~ in properties but adverse to the person's practice is antagonistic to ~~''doshas''~~.

+

Use of diet, drug and behaviour similar to [[dosha]] in properties but adverse to the person's practice is antagonistic to [[dosha]].

When the edible becomes poisonous by particular processing such as in case of peacock's meat attached to castor stick (''eranda''), it is known to be antagonistic in terms of processing.

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Antagonism in bowels is that when too little drug of mild potency with limited effectiveness in breaking hard mass is administered to persons suffering from hard bowels, and on the other hand, heavy, highly potent drug is administered to those suffering from soft bowel.

−

When ''vata-''vitiating substances are administered to persons indulging in overwork, sexual intercourse and exercise while ''kapha''-vitiating ones to those who oversleep or are lazy, it is an example of antagonism with respect to health conditions.

+

When [[vata]]-vitiating substances are administered to persons indulging in overwork, sexual intercourse and exercise while [[kapha]]-vitiating ones to those who oversleep or are lazy, it is an example of antagonism with respect to health conditions.

Antagonism in terms of order is that where one takes food before excreting feces and urine and without appetite or excessive hunger.

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Purgation, emesis, pacification or prior use of wholesome substance alleviates the disorders caused by antagonistic (''viruddha'') food. Antagonism is neutralized by suitability, small quantity, strong digestive power, in young, and in persons having unction, physical exercise, and strength. [105-106]

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=== Summary ===

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== Tattva Vimarsha(Fundamental Principles) ==

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*''Rasa'' (taste) of any substance is six in number, and the source element for the manifestation of all forms of tastes is ''jala mahabhuta''.

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*''Rasa'' (taste) of any substance is six in number, and the source element for the manifestation of all forms of tastes is [[jala]] [[mahabhuta]].

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*According to the science of [[Ayurveda]], all matter (animate or inanimate) is made up of the five ~~''mahabhutas''~~ (five basic elements).

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*According to the science of [[Ayurveda]], all matter (animate or inanimate) is made up of the five [[mahabhuta]] (five basic elements).

*The matter is the substratum of ''rasa''.

*There is nothing in the world which does not have therapeutic value, and at the same time, everything cannot be used for the treatment of every disease.

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*Drugs or diet abounding in the properties of given ''mahabhuta'' are useful in making good the deficiency of that ''mahabhuta'' in the body.

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*Drugs or diet abounding in the properties of given [[mahabhuta]] are useful in making good the deficiency of that [[mahabhuta]] in the body.

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*A physician, well acquainted with the classification of ''rasa'' and ~~''doshas''~~, seldom commits blunders in ascertaining the etiology, symptomatology, and treatment of diseases.

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*A physician, well acquainted with the classification of ''rasa'' and [[dosha]], seldom commits blunders in ascertaining the etiology, symptomatology, and treatment of diseases.

*Drugs and diets having particular taste cause disease and if administered with due care, they can also cure disease.

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*General principles of drug action are described with the help of the attributes namely ''rasa'' (taste), ''guna''(quality),''veerya'' (potency/energy of molecules to produce action), ''vipaka'' (factor of metabolism) and ''prabhava'' (specific principle).

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*General principles of drug action are described with the help of the attributes namely ''rasa'' (taste), [[guna]](quality),''veerya'' (potency/energy of molecules to produce action), ''vipaka'' (factor of metabolism) and ''prabhava'' (specific principle).

*The accomplishment of treatment is totally dependent on ''paradi gunas'' which are general attributes dealing with processing and prescribing of drugs Charak emphatically stated that without understanding the concept of ''paradi guna'', a physician cannot be successful in curing the disease.

*Rasa helps not only in understanding the ''panchabhautik'' composition of drug/diet but also serves as a tool for identification of the rest of the principles of drug action like ''veerya'' and ''vipaka''.

*Certain drugs may have the attributes (''veerya, vipaka,'' etc.) and activities which are not in conformity with rasa. The substances having similar tastes may not produce similar activities.

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*''Rasas'' are categorized into superior, moderate and inferior basing on six ''guna'' like ''ruksha, snigdha, ushna, sheeta, guru,'' and ''laghu''. ''Vipaka'' is classified similarly based on ''rasa''.

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*''Rasas'' are categorized into superior, moderate and inferior basing on six [[guna]] like ''ruksha, snigdha, ushna, sheeta, guru,'' and ''laghu''. ''Vipaka'' is classified similarly based on ''rasa''.

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*Assessment of principles of drug action is as follows "''Rasa'' or taste of drugs and diets can be ascertained immediately after their contact with the tongue. Their ''vipaka'' can be ascertained by the action (in the form of aggravation of ''kapha'' etc.). Their ''veerya'' can be determined (between the stages of ''rasa'' and ''vipaka'') through their association with the body and or even immediately after coming into contact with the body. Among these, the ''rasas'' are the only attributes that can be perceived. The rest are inferred by actions only.

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*Assessment of principles of drug action is as follows "''Rasa'' or taste of drugs and diets can be ascertained immediately after their contact with the tongue. Their ''vipaka'' can be ascertained by the action (in the form of aggravation of [[kapha]] etc.). Their ''veerya'' can be determined (between the stages of ''rasa'' and ''vipaka'') through their association with the body and or even immediately after coming into contact with the body. Among these, the ''rasas'' are the only attributes that can be perceived. The rest are inferred by actions only.

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*''Vipaka'' is the process of transformation (metabolism) of five ~~''mahabhutas''~~.

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*''Vipaka'' is the process of transformation (metabolism) of five [[mahabhuta]].

*Inability to explain the rationality of drug action is attributed to a specific principle called ''prabhava'', inherent in ''dravya''.

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*Unwholesome drugs and diet (''viruddha ahara''), dislodge the vitiated ~~''doshas''~~ but fail to expel them out of the body. Variant principles, like the place, time, digestive power, mode of preparation, combination (synergistic and antagonistic), etc. play a crucial role in making drug/diet as the unwholesome substance.

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*Unwholesome drugs and diet (''viruddha ahara''), dislodge the vitiated [[dosha]] but fail to expel them out of the body. Variant principles, like the place, time, digestive power, mode of preparation, combination (synergistic and antagonistic), etc. play a crucial role in making drug/diet as the unwholesome substance.

*Unwholesome diet is responsible for causation of production of ''ama'' and other conditions like sterility, mental disease, skin diseases, acid dyspepsia, fever, fetal disease (''santandosha'') and even death.

== Vidhi Vimarsha (Applied Inferences) ==

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#Assessment of [[panchamahabhuta]] in a substance can be carried out by taking into consideration, the most conspicuous characteristic of each ''mahabhuta''. For example, ''gandha guna, rasa guna, ~~rupaguna~~, sparsh guna'' and ~~''shabd~~ guna'' are chief characteristics of ~~''prithvi~~, jala, agni, vayu'' and ''akasha ~~mahabhutas''~~ respectively. By these organ-specific methods, it becomes easy to assess the ''panchbhutika'' constitution of the substance. Rest of the ~~''gunas''~~ given for each ''mahabhuta'' should be clinically evaluated.

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#Assessment of [[panchamahabhuta]] in a substance can be carried out by taking into consideration, the most conspicuous characteristic of each [[mahabhuta]]. For example, gandha [[guna]], rasa [[guna]], rupa[[guna]], sparsh [[guna]] and shabda [[guna]] are chief characteristics of [[Prithvi]], [[jala]], [[agni]], [[vayu]] and [[akasha]] [[mahabhuta]] respectively. By these organ-specific methods, it becomes easy to assess the ''panchbhutika'' constitution of the substance. Rest of the [[guna]] given for each [[mahabhuta]] should be clinically evaluated.

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#The gustatory effect of the initial, as well as final contact of the drug either in the dry or wet state with the tongue, is known as ''rasa'' or taste. ''Rasa'' is the only principle of drug action which can be directly perceived (''pratyaksha gamya''). This is to be assessed in human volunteers by a single blind method with a performa consisting of chief characteristics of each ''rasa''. As mentioned in [[Charak Samhita]] ~~(su~~. 26/73-79) sugarcane, milk, and sugar candy are all said to be sweet, but there is an obvious difference in the taste of these substances. So, the intensity of each ''rasa'' can be assessed by taste threshold method. Electronic tongue if developed may help to validate the information about the intensity of ''rasa''.

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#The gustatory effect of the initial, as well as final contact of the drug either in the dry or wet state with the tongue, is known as ''rasa'' or taste. ''Rasa'' is the only principle of drug action which can be directly perceived (''pratyaksha gamya''). This is to be assessed in human volunteers by a single blind method with a performa consisting of chief characteristics of each ''rasa''. As mentioned in [[Charak Samhita]] [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 26/73-79] sugarcane, milk, and sugar candy are all said to be sweet, but there is an obvious difference in the taste of these substances. So, the intensity of each ''rasa'' can be assessed by taste threshold method. Electronic tongue if developed may help to validate the information about the intensity of ''rasa''.

#''Veerya'' and ''vipaka'' are inferred through the activities or final effects (''karma'') produced by intake of drug/diet.

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#''Vipaka'' is a pharmacokinetic principle, and its activities are referred at the level of ''koshtha'' (''mutra'' and ''purisha''), ''dhatu'' (''shukra'') and ~~''doshas''~~. ''Rasa'' and ''veerya'' are pharmacodynamic principles. Assessment of ''veerya'' and ''vipaka'' are to be evaluated clinically.

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#''Vipaka'' is a pharmacokinetic principle, and its activities are referred at the level of ''koshtha'' ([[mutra]] and [[purisha]]), [[dhatu]]([[shukra]]) and [[dosha]]. ''Rasa'' and ''veerya'' are pharmacodynamic principles. Assessment of ''veerya'' and ''vipaka'' are to be evaluated clinically.

#The concept of ''viruddhaahara'' indicates the concepts of incompatibility and allergic reactions. For example, neither honey nor ghee is toxic to the body but if they both taken in equal quantity becomes unwholesome. A combination of it must be subjected to chemical analysis and pharmacological evaluation to assess the adverse effects.

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#Treatment of disease induced by ''viruddhaahara'' includes ''vamana, virechana,'' administration of antagonistic drugs and adaptation of prophylactic measures.

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#Treatment of disease induced by ''viruddhaahara'' includes [[vamana]], [[virechana]], administration of antagonistic drugs and adaptation of prophylactic measures.

#The concept of ''prabhava'' clearly indicates the principle which contributes to the specific activity of the drug and is inexplicable in nature. ''Danti'' root which acts as a purgative loses its effectiveness when soaked in water and administered. Observations indicate that ''danti'' has water soluble qualities that contribute to its ability to work as a purgative ref. Once the causative principle is identified, the activity of ''danti'' can be explained in a rational way, and it cannot be quoted as an example of ''prabhava''. In the light of photochemical research, the explanation of drug action becomes rational and the ''prabhava'', a specific principle can be deleted from the list of principles of drug action.

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Acharya Priya Vrat Sharma has discussed concept of ''rasa'' based on the physicochemical constitution of ''dravyas'' as follows: ''madhura'' (sugar, fat, and amino acids), ''amla'' (acids), ''lavana'' (salts), ''katu'' (essential oils, phenols), ''tikta'' (certain alkaloids and glycosides), and ''kashaya'' (tannins). According to his hypothesis, carbohydrates and proteins are present in ''madhura rasa dravyas''; all the ''amla rasa dravyas'' show acidic properties and all the drugs in ''lavana varga'' contain sodium chloride (NaCl). All the ''dravyas'' of ''katu varga'' contain essential oils while half of all ''katu dravyas'' contain alkaloids or glycosides or phenols. All the ''tikta dravyas'' contain alkaloids, and only 10% of ''dravyas'' contain glycosides. Many of the ''kashaya'' ''rasas'' contain tannin<ref>K. Nishteswar, Basic concepts of ayurvedic pharmacology, Chaukhamba Sanskrit series office, Varanasi,2008,pp:xii </ref>.

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==== Guna ====

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==== [[Guna]] ====

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In recent years, some effort has been made to refine the objective parameters used for assessing ''snigdha-ruksha'' and ''sheeta-ushna [[guna]] by employing animal experimentation. Absolute evaluation of one [[guna]] is not possible in a living body since there are infinite factors related to each and every biological event. Metabolic study (''dipana pachana'' experiment), intestinal secretion and motility test, and swimming stress test (swimming induced hypothermia) have been employed to assess the effects of various drugs having ''snigdha-ruksha'' and sheeta- ushna [[guna]]. ''Sheeta'' and snigdha [[guna]] drugs have shown an increase in body weight in metabolic experiments compared to ''ushna'' and ruksha [[guna]] drugs. Snigdha [[guna]] drugs alleviated stress-induced hypothermia whereas ruksha [[guna]] drugs aggravated it<ref>Supriya. S. Balerao A comprehensive study of [[guna]] and evolution of some ojective parameters in the context of snigdha and ruksha [[guna]] Thesis, IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar,1998 </ref> <ref>Santosh Mane Evolution and evaluation of some objective parameters for ushna and sita [[guna]] based on panchabhoutik theory and experiments. Thesis,IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar,2008. </ref>

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==== [[Veerya]] ====

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An attempt has been made to assess the effects of ''sheeta'' and ''ushna veerya'' drugs (''samana pratyayarabdha dravyas'') on basal metabolic rate (BMR). Two ''sheeta veerya'' drugs, namely, ''yashtimadhu'' (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and ''shatavari'' (Asparagus racemosus) and two ''ushna veerya'' drugs, namely, ''chitraka'' (Plumbago zeylanica) and ''jatiphala'' (Myristica fragrans) were considered for this study. In healthy volunteers, initial BMR was recorded with McKesson metabolizer. Then the drug was administered three times a day (''chitraka'' and ''jatiphala'' 2gm each and ''yashtimadhu'' and ''shatavari'' 5gm each). A significant increase (p<0.05) was observed with ''yashti'', while the increase in BMR with ''shatavari'' was not very significant. ''Chitraka'' and ''jatiphala'' brought about a significant decrease in BMR(p<0.05). Therefore, ''sheetaveerya'' and ''ushnaveerya'' drugs which represent the ''saumyatva'' and ''agneyatva'' of a drug or food may be responsible for synthesizing or metabolizing the [[dhatu]] due to their ''santarpaka'' or ''apatarpaka'' actions<ref>K Nishteswar, Basic concepts of ayurvedic pharmacology, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Series office, Varanasi,2009 pp-109-114 </ref>.

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==== [[Vipaka]] ====

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An attempt has been made to assess [[vipaka]] of certain drugs by their effect on [[mala]] (feces and urine) and [[dosha]] ([[vata]], [[pitta]], and [[kapha]]). Drugs, namely ''bala'' and ''shatavari'' (''madhura vipaka''), ''vrikshamla'' and ''[[amalaki]]'' (''amla vipaka'' and ''madhura vipaka''), ''[[maricha]]'' and ''[[pippali]]'' (''katu vipaka'' and ''madhura vipaka''), ''kushtha'' and ''[[nimba]]'' (katu vipaka), and [[lodhra]] and ashoka (katu vipaka) were taken up for the study. The study was done for six days. For the first two days, kapardika bhasma (250 mg., thrice a day) as placebo was administered and from the third day onwards the trial drug, in decoction form, (96 ml, twice a day) was given to healthy volunteers for two days. The remaining two days were used for following up. The influence of these drugs on [[dosha]] and [[mala]] were assessed using a structured proforma. Madhura and Amla vipaka drugs increased the quantity of urine and stool. Madhura vipaka drugs increased [[kapha]] [[dosha]] while Amla vipaka drugs increased [[pitta]] [[dosha]]. Katu vipaka drugs decreased the urine and stool output and increased [[vata]] [[dosha]]<ref>Naveen H. Dave, Vipaka karmanishtaya Thesis, IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar,1998 </ref>.

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In recent years, some effort has been made to refine the objective parameters used for assessing ''snigdha-ruksha'' and ''sheeta-ushna gunas'' by employing animal experimentation. Absolute evaluation of one ''guna'' is not possible in a living body since there are infinite factors related to each and every biological event. Metabolic study (''dipana pachana'' experiment), intestinal secretion and motility test, and swimming stress test (swimming induced hypothermia) have been employed to assess the effects of various drugs having ''snigdha-ruksha'' and ''sheeta- ushna gunas''. ''Sheeta'' and ''snigdha guna'' drugs have shown an increase in body weight in metabolic experiments compared to ''ushna'' and ''ruksha guna'' drugs. ''Snigdha guna'' drugs alleviated stress-induced hypothermia whereas ''ruksha guna'' drugs aggravated it<ref>Supriya. S. Balerao A comprehensive study of gunas and evolution of some ojective parameters in the context of snigdha and ruksha gunas Thesis, IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar,1998 </ref> <ref>Santosh Mane Evolution and evaluation of some objective parameters for ushna and sita gunas based on panchabhoutik theory and experiments. Thesis,IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar,2008. </ref>

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==== [[Prabhava]] ====

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~~==== Veerya ====~~

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It is quite apparent that the ''acharyas'' formulated the hypothesis that explained the workings of drugs after observing various activities. In the context of the failure of the hypothetical principles to explain the drug action in a rational way, the concept of ''[[prabhava]]'' was formulated which may be interpreted as an empirical principle. Drugs with similar chemical structure should have similar actions. But it is not possible to predict the activity of a drug entirely by its chemical structure. Drugs with similar structures but having entirely different effects are known as isomers, for example, Antazoline and Tolazoline appear chemically similar but former is an antihistamine and the latter is an adrenergic blocking agent. Conversely, many dissimilar chemical agents have similar action, for example, phenobarbitone, chloralhydrate, and paraldehyde are all depressants of the central nervous system. The concept of ''[[prabhava]]'' may be interpreted using the concept of isomerism<ref>Dwarkanath C., The Fundamental Principles of [[Ayurveda]], Chaukhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi; 2009: pp-180 </ref>.

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An attempt has been made to assess the effects of ''sheeta'' and ''ushna veerya'' drugs (''samana pratyayarabdha dravyas'') on basal metabolic rate (BMR). Two ''sheeta veerya'' drugs, namely, ''yashtimadhu'' (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and ''shatavari'' (Asparagus racemosus) and two ''ushna veerya'' drugs, namely, ''chitraka'' (Plumbago zeylanica) and ''jatiphala'' (Myristica fragrans) were considered for this study. In healthy volunteers, initial BMR was recorded with McKesson metabolizer. Then the drug was administered three times a day (''chitraka'' and ''jatiphala'' 2gm each and ''yashtimadhu'' and ''shatavari'' 5gm each). A significant increase (p<0.05) was observed with ''yashti'', while the increase in BMR with ''shatavari'' was not very significant. ''Chitraka'' and ''jatiphala'' brought about a significant decrease in BMR(p<0.05). Therefore, ''sheetaveerya'' and ''ushnaveerya'' drugs which represent the ''saumyatva'' and ''agneyatva'' of a drug or food may be responsible for synthesizing or metabolizing the ''dhatus'' due to their ''santarpaka'' or ''apatarpaka'' actions<ref>K Nishteswar, Basic concepts of ayurvedic pharmacology, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Series office, Varanasi,2009 pp-109-114 </ref>.

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=== Current researches ===

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==== ~~Vipaka~~ ====

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====Adverse effects of viruddha ahara (incompatible diet) ====

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~~An attempt has been made to assess ''vipaka''~~ of ~~certain drugs by their effect on ''malas'' (feces and urine) and ''doshas'' (''vata~~, ~~pitta,'' and ''kapha'')~~. Drugs, namely ''bala'' and ''shatavari'' (''madhura vipaka''), ''vrikshamla'' and ''amalaki'' (''amla vipaka'' and ''madhura vipaka''), ''maricha'' and ''pippali'' (''katu vipaka'' and ''madhura vipaka''), ''kushtha'' and ''nimba'' (katu vipaka), and lodhra and ~~Ashoka (katu vipaka) were taken up for the study~~. ~~The study was done for six days. For~~ the ~~first two days~~, ~~kapardika bhasma (250 mg.~~, ~~thrice a day) as placebo was administered~~ and ~~from the third day onwards the trial drug, in decoction form, (96 ml, twice~~ a ~~day) was given to healthy volunteers for two days. The remaining two days were used for following up. The influence~~ of ~~these drugs on doshas and malas were assessed using a structured proforma~~. ~~Madhura and Amla vipaka drugs increased the quantity of urine and stool~~. ~~Madhura vipaka drugs increased kapha dosha while Amla vipaka drugs increased pitta dosha~~. ~~Katu vipaka drugs decreased the urine and stool output and increased vata dosha~~<ref>~~Naveen H~~. ~~Dave, Vipaka karmanishtaya Thesis, IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar,1998~~ </ref>.

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Regular consumption of incompatible diet can induce inflammation at a molecular level, disturbing the eicosanoid pathway. It can create more arachidonic acid leading to increased prostaglandin-2 and thromboxane. This inflammatory effect is an important effect as these are all the basic pathologies that create Agni Mandya, Ama, and a number of metabolic disorders. Moreover, it can lead to epigenetic modifications. It includes food:food interactions, food processing interactions. <ref>Sabnis M. Viruddha Ahara: A critical view. Ayu. 2012;33(3):332‐336. doi:10.4103/0974-8520.108817</ref>

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~~==== Prabhava ====~~

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Betel quid, which is a mixture of areca nut, betel leaf, slaked lime and tobacco is a perfect example of Samyoga Viruddha, It has been observed to produce carcinogenic effects.<ref>Sirdeshpande MK, Kashikar VA. Critical review on Samyoga Viruddha (combination incompatibility) with special emphasis on carcinogenic effect of combination of betel quid, areca nut and tobacco. Ayu. 2017;38(3-4):97‐101. doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_71_16</ref>

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~~It is quite apparent that the~~ ''~~acharyas~~'' formulated the hypothesis that explained the workings of drugs after observing various activities. In the context of the failure of the hypothetical principles to explain the drug action in a rational way, the concept of ''prabhava'' was formulated which may be interpreted as an empirical principle. Drugs with similar chemical structure should have similar actions. But it is not possible to predict the activity of a drug entirely by its chemical structure. Drugs with similar structures but having entirely different effects are known as isomers, for example, Antazoline and ~~Tolazoline appear chemically similar but former is an antihistamine and the latter is an adrenergic blocking agent~~. ~~Conversely, many dissimilar chemical agents have similar action, for example, phenobarbitone, chloralhydrate, and paraldehyde are all depressants of the central nervous system. The concept of~~ ''~~prabhava~~'~~' may be interpreted using the concept of isomerism<ref>Dwarkanath C., The Fundamental Principles of [[Ayurveda]], Chaukhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi; 2009: pp-180~~ </~~ref~~>.

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