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|title=Adhyayana

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|description=The word 'Adhyayana' means to study. There are specific methods of study described in Ayurveda

|description=The word 'Adhyayana' means to study. There are specific methods of study described in Ayurveda

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<div style='text-align:justify;'>

<p style='text-align:justify;'>Adhyayana means to study or to learn.

[[Ayurveda]] is a science of life that have impressions of the Vedic period in the Indian subcontinent. It follows most of the fundamental principles which were practiced in the Vedic era. [[Ayurveda]] focuses on the wholesome development of a person. A person's lifespan is divided into four stages of life (ashrama) viz. [[brahmacharya]], grihastha, vanaprastha, and sanyasa. The first stage, [[brahmacharya]], represents obtaining knowledge and practicing celibacy. In the Vedic era, the tradition of preacher and pupil (guru-shishya parampara) was followed for acquiring knowledge. In this sacred process, knowledge was passed down from the preacher (guru) to their sages by oral lore (mokhika vidya). This process magnifies the pupil’s inner development. It was focused on expanding the pupil's capability, potential, and overall persona. It was treated as a social, emotional and cognitive development process and not as a mere mechanical process based on collective drill and training. Three methods have been explained for obtaining knowledge, viz., studying and learning (adhyayana), teaching (adhyapana) and discussion (sambhashana). In this sequence, adhyayana has been placed first because the foremost duty in a lifespan is adhyayana (study). For this purpose, the pupil (shishya) was sent away from home to stay with the preacher to study. This article describes methods of learning in ancient and contemporary times.  

[[Ayurveda]] is a science of life that have impressions of the Vedic period in the Indian subcontinent. It follows most of the fundamental principles which were practiced in the Vedic era. [[Ayurveda]] focuses on the wholesome development of a person. A person's lifespan is divided into four stages of life (ashrama) viz. [[brahmacharya]], grihastha, vanaprastha, and sanyasa. The first stage, [[brahmacharya]], represents obtaining knowledge and practicing celibacy. In the Vedic era, the tradition of preacher and pupil (guru-shishya parampara) was followed for acquiring knowledge. In this sacred process, knowledge was passed down from the preacher (guru) to their sages by oral lore (mokhika vidya). This process magnifies the pupil’s inner development. It was focused on expanding the pupil's capability, potential, and overall persona. It was treated as a social, emotional and cognitive development process and not as a mere mechanical process based on collective drill and training. Three methods have been explained for obtaining knowledge, viz., studying and learning (adhyayana), teaching (adhyapana) and discussion (sambhashana). In this sequence, adhyayana has been placed first because the foremost duty in a lifespan is adhyayana (study). For this purpose, the pupil (shishya) was sent away from home to stay with the preacher to study. This article describes methods of learning in ancient and contemporary times. </p>

{{Infobox

{{Infobox

|label1 = Section/Chapter/topic

|label1 = Section/Chapter/topic

|data1 = Concepts/Educational methods / Adhyayana (Methods of study and learning)  

|data1 = Concepts/Educational methods/ Adhyayana (Methods of study and learning)  

|label2 = Authors

|label2 = Authors

|label3 = Reviewer  

|label3 = Reviewer  

|data3 = Basisht G.³

|data3 = [[Gopal Basisht|Basisht G.]]³

|label4 = Editors  

|label4 = Editors  

|data4 = Deole Y.S.⁴, Basisht G.³

|data4 = [[Yogesh Deole|Deole Y.S.]]⁴, [[Gopal Basisht|Basisht G.]]³

|label5 = Affiliations

|label5 = Affiliations

²Department of Samhita Siddhant, All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi

²Department of Samhita Siddhant, All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi

³ [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre]], I.T.R.A., Jamnagar, India

³ Rheumatologist, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A.

⁴ Department of Kayachikitsa, G.J.Patel Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Research, New Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India

⁴ Department of Kayachikitsa, G.J.Patel Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Research, New Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India

carakasamhita@gmail.com

carakasamhita@gmail.com

|label7 = Date of first publication:

|label7 = Publisher

|data7 = April 30, 2022

|data7 = [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre]], I.T.R.A., Jamnagar, India

|label8 = DOI

|label8 = Date of first publication:

|data8 = under process

 

|label9 = DOI

|data9 = 10.47468/CSNE.2022.e01.s09.096

}}

}}

*Adhyayana means reading Vedic literature just by reciting.

*Adhyayana means reading Vedic literature just by reciting.

*Adhyayana also refers to the study of Vedas along with their meaning.<ref> MONIER-WILLIAMS, M. (1899), A Sanskrit-English dictionary , 22 , Available from:

*Adhyayana also refers to the study of Vedas along with their meaning.<ref> MONIER-WILLIAMS, M. (1899), A Sanskrit-English dictionary , 22 , Available from:

https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=22</ref>, <ref>APTE, V. S. (1890) , The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary , 0051-b , Available from :https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/cslapidev/servepdf.php?dict=AP90&page=0051-b</ref>

https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=22</ref> <ref>APTE, V. S. (1890) , The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary , 0051-b , Available from :https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/cslapidev/servepdf.php?dict=AP90&page=0051-b</ref>

==History in the Vedic Period==

==History in the Vedic Period==

In ancient times, adhyayana was done by brahmanas with a view for the welfare of all the creatures; kshatriyas for delivering their duty as protectors, and vaishyas as means of livelihood. [[Ayurveda]] is studied for the achievement of all virtues (dharma), wealth (artha), and pleasure (kama). [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 30/29]

In ancient times, adhyayana was done by brahmanas with a view for the welfare of all the creatures; kshatriyas for delivering their duty as protectors, and vaishyas as means of livelihood. [[Ayurveda]] is studied for the achievement of all virtues (dharma), wealth (artha), and pleasure (kama). [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 30/29]

'''I. Preparation and time to start study'''

==Preparation and time to start study==

The benefits of weapons, treatise, and water depend upon the qualities of their users. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 9/20] Therefore, the pupil should have some qualities for adhyayana. The healthy pupil should concentrate only on adhyayana. He should study at dawn or while a portion of the night is left (brahma muhurta). After finishing essential routines and ablutions, he should offer prayers to the God, sages, cow (as a sacred animal), brahmanas, teacher, elderly, and knowledgeable persons. They should sit in an even and clean place for study. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana  Sthana]] 8/7] In some recent studies, it has been found that people rising in brahma muhurta had improved their ability to recall than the persons who wake up after sunrise.<ref>Kumaran VS, Raghavendra BR, Manjunath NK. Influence of early rising on performance in tasks requiring attention and memory. Indian J PhysiolPharmacol. 2012 Oct-Dec;56(4):337-44. PMID: 23781653.</ref>

The benefits of weapons, treatise, and water depend upon the qualities of their users. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 9/20] Therefore, the pupil should have some qualities for adhyayana. The healthy pupil should concentrate only on adhyayana. He should study at dawn or while a portion of the night is left (brahma muhurta). After finishing essential routines and ablutions, he should offer prayers to the God, sages, cow (as a sacred animal), brahmanas, teacher, elderly, and knowledgeable persons. They should sit in an even and clean place for study. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana  Sthana]] 8/7] In some recent studies, it has been found that people rising in brahma muhurta had improved their ability to recall than the persons who wake up after sunrise.<ref>Kumaran VS, Raghavendra BR, Manjunath NK. Influence of early rising on performance in tasks requiring attention and memory. Indian J PhysiolPharmacol. 2012 Oct-Dec;56(4):337-44. PMID: 23781653.</ref>

This specifies that the study shall be done at proper place and at proper time to obtain maximum grasping of knowledge.  

This specifies that the study shall be done at proper place and at proper time to obtain maximum grasping of knowledge.

==Methods of study==

'''Methods of study'''

a) In [[Ayurveda]], the knowledge was transferred from Brahma to Bharadwaja in the form of three main sutras (trisutra) like etiology, clinical features and therapeutics. This knowledge is documented in Samhita in the same format. This trisutra methodology shall be followed in adhyayana, too.[Cha.Su.[[Sutra Sthana]] 1/24]

a) In [[Ayurveda]], the knowledge was transferred from Brahma to Bharadwaja in the form of three main sutras (trisutra) like etiology, clinical features and therapeutics. This knowledge is documented in Samhita in the same format. This trisutra methodology shall be followed in adhyayana, too.[Cha.Su.[[Sutra Sthana]] 1/24]

b) The whole science (shastra) is elucidated in the nutshell of four fundamental principles (bijachatushya): person ([[purusha]]), disease ([[vyadhi]]), medicine ([[aushadhi]]), time of therapy ([[kriyakaala]]). These have been elaborated in one hundred and twenty chapters of the treatise. This methodology of adhyayana of shastra shall be followed to understand. [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthan 1/38-39]<ref name= Susruta> Sushruta. Sushruta Samhita. Edited by Jadavaji Trikamji Aacharya. 8th ed. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia;2005.</ref>

b) The whole science (shastra) is elucidated in the nutshell of four fundamental principles (bijachatushya): person ([[purusha]]), disease ([[vyadhi]]), medicine ([[aushadhi]]), time of therapy (kriyakala). These have been elaborated in one hundred and twenty chapters of the treatise. This methodology of adhyayana of shastra shall be followed to understand. [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana 1/38-39]<ref name= Susruta> Sushruta. Sushruta Samhita. Edited by Jadavaji Trikamji Aacharya. 8th ed. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia;2005.</ref>

c) While reading the science, elaboration of topics should be done following the steps:

c) While reading the science, elaboration of topics should be done following the steps:

10.Drug regimen (vidhi) according to habitat (desha), time (kala), disease ([[vyadhi]])

10.Drug regimen (vidhi) according to habitat (desha), time (kala), disease ([[vyadhi]])

'''II. Methods of reading and understanding'''

==Methods of reading and understanding==

After preparation of pupil and knowledge of methods, the following methods are adapted to read and understand text.

After preparation of pupil and knowledge of methods, the following methods are adapted to read and understand text.

Samhita was written in such manner so that it was easy to recite, remember and follow the rules of the Sanskrit language. There are various topics where true meaning of the verses (shlokas) are hidden. The commentators created multiple tools to understand hidden meanings and to interpret the true meaning. These are collectively called ‘Tantra guna’. These help in the proper understanding and interpretation of Samhita. [[Tantrayukti]] is the most popular among these. Similarly, few terminologies/techniques coined by the commentators like taccheelyadi, kalpana, arthashrya etc. which, are also known as Tantra guna. All these are means for proper adhyayana. [[Pramana]] is also a means for gaining knowledge. Like [[tantrayukti]], it helps in good understanding and interpretation by using different [[pramana]].

Samhita was written in such manner so that it was easy to recite, remember and follow the rules of the Sanskrit language. There are various topics where true meaning of the verses (shlokas) are hidden. The commentators created multiple tools to understand hidden meanings and to interpret the true meaning. These are collectively called ‘Tantra guna’. These help in the proper understanding and interpretation of Samhita. [[Tantrayukti]] is the most popular among these. Similarly, few terminologies/techniques coined by the commentators like taccheelyadi, kalpana, arthashrya etc. which, are also known as Tantra guna. All these are means for proper adhyayana. [[Pramana]] is also a means for gaining knowledge. Like [[tantrayukti]], it helps in good understanding and interpretation by using different [[pramana]].

'''III. After completion of adhyayana'''

==After completion of adhyayana==

The theoretical and practical knowledge are equally important. After Adhyayana, the pupil should apply this theoretical knowledge to improve his practical skills. The pupil should be exposed to the practical application of that theoretical knowledge. Therefore Yogyasutriya adhyaya (the chapter on obtaining practical skill in surgery) is explained for practical proficiency. [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana 9/3]<ref name=Susruta/> After finishing study, one should make efforts to attain clarity of speech, depths of import, boldness, proficiency, practice, and successful management. [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana 3/56]<ref name=Susruta/>

The theoretical and practical knowledge are equally important. After Adhyayana, the pupil should apply this theoretical knowledge to improve his practical skills. The pupil should be exposed to the practical application of that theoretical knowledge. Therefore Yogyasutriya adhyaya (the chapter on obtaining practical skill in surgery) is explained for practical proficiency. [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana 9/3]<ref name=Susruta/> After finishing study, one should make efforts to attain clarity of speech, depths of import, boldness, proficiency, practice, and successful management. [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana 3/56]<ref name=Susruta/>

In current times, [[Ayurveda]] is studied as a professional course named as Bachelor of Ayurveda Medicine and Surgery (B.A.M.S.). It includes the above-mentioned methods of studying ancient texts, contemporary books and clinical practices.  

In current times, [[Ayurveda]] is studied as a professional course named as Bachelor of Ayurveda Medicine and Surgery (B.A.M.S.). It includes the above-mentioned methods of studying ancient texts, contemporary books and clinical practices.  

'''Inappropriate times for study:'''

==Inappropriate times for study==

One shall not study during unseasonal lightning, when there is an outbreak of fire, during an earthquake, during festivals, meteorite fall, solar or lunar eclipse, during new moon day or dawn or dusk, without being instructed by a teacher. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 8/24] These times are not suitable for study, as the mind is distracted from objectives of study.

One shall not study during unseasonal lightning, when there is an outbreak of fire, during an earthquake, during festivals, meteorite fall, solar or lunar eclipse, during new moon day or dawn or dusk, without being instructed by a teacher. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 8/24] These times are not suitable for study, as the mind is distracted from objectives of study.

'''Improper methods:'''

==Improper methods==

One shall not recite words incompletely in low pitch nor high/coarse voice, with an improper accent, without morphological symmetry. One shall not recite very fast or very slow. There shall not be any delay in between recitation. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 8/24] These methods do not lead to grasping proper knowledge.

One shall not recite words incompletely in low pitch nor high/coarse voice, with an improper accent, without morphological symmetry. One shall not recite very fast or very slow. There shall not be any delay in between recitation. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 8/24] These methods do not lead to grasping proper knowledge.

In Covid 19 pandemic,  these distance learning and cyber school methods were adopted for better learning of students. Virtual classrooms are made possible through educational technology with the help of the internet.

In Covid 19 pandemic,  these distance learning and cyber school methods were adopted for better learning of students. Virtual classrooms are made possible through educational technology with the help of the internet.

'''Advantages and disadvantages of online education:'''[7]

===Advantages and disadvantages of online education===

'''Advantages:'''

====Advantages====

1. Personal circumstances or health disruptions, specifically contagious viruses such as COVID-19 and the Common cold, or injuries will not halt learning since the physical demands are much less.

1. Personal circumstances or health disruptions, specifically contagious viruses such as COVID-19 and the Common cold, or injuries will not halt learning since the physical demands are much less.

3. It is cost-effective and also increases accessibility to remote education for poor or rural areas where commuting to schools or lack of resources are a concern.<ref>Available from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_school</ref>

3. It is cost-effective and also increases accessibility to remote education for poor or rural areas where commuting to schools or lack of resources are a concern.<ref>Available from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_school</ref>

'''Disadvantages:'''

====Disadvantages====

1. It reduces engagement, and interaction, and leads to a lack of socialization, which can potentially decrease a student's social competence or skills, such as their ability to cooperate with others.

1. It reduces engagement, and interaction, and leads to a lack of socialization, which can potentially decrease a student's social competence or skills, such as their ability to cooperate with others.

As per Bloom’s taxonomy, there are three learning domains- cognitive domain, affective domain and psychomotor domain. Cognitive domain deals with the knowledge and development of intellectual skills. The affective domain deals with moral values, emotions, and attitude. The psychomotor domain deals with physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor skill areas. These three domains are essential for students. The cognitive domain list has been the primary focus of most traditional education. It is frequently used to structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments, and activities.<ref>Pragati W, Deepak M V, Suwarna D V. Teaching-learning process in ancient ayurvedic text- CharakSamhita . J Educ Technol Health Sci 2021;8930:83-8710.Available from :  https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/</ref>

As per Bloom’s taxonomy, there are three learning domains- cognitive domain, affective domain and psychomotor domain. Cognitive domain deals with the knowledge and development of intellectual skills. The affective domain deals with moral values, emotions, and attitude. The psychomotor domain deals with physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor skill areas. These three domains are essential for students. The cognitive domain list has been the primary focus of most traditional education. It is frequently used to structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments, and activities.<ref>Pragati W, Deepak M V, Suwarna D V. Teaching-learning process in ancient ayurvedic text- CharakSamhita . J Educ Technol Health Sci 2021;8930:83-8710.Available from :  https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/</ref>

The cognitive domain consists of 6 levels of objectives: Remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create.<ref>[10]</ref> These methods are practiced in ancient learning methods as explained below.

The cognitive domain consists of 6 levels of objectives: Remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create.<ref>Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom’s Taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/. Available from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/ cited on 24/05/2022 </ref> These methods are practiced in ancient learning methods as explained below.

1. Remember: Authoritative knowledge ([[aaptopadesha pramana]]) includes remembering and recalling facts and basic concepts that are already present in the form of tantras or samhita.

1. Remember: Authoritative knowledge ([[aaptopadesha pramana]]) includes remembering and recalling facts and basic concepts that are already present in the form of tantras or samhita.

3. Apply: It involves using acquired knowledge to solve problems in new situations. Using this knowledge for execution and implementation after interpretation is practiced. It is similar practice of inference ([[anumana pramana]]).

3. Apply: It involves using acquired knowledge to solve problems in new situations. Using this knowledge for execution and implementation after interpretation is practiced. It is similar practice of inference ([[anumana pramana]]).

4. Analyze: It draws connections among ideas, determining how the parts relate to one another, identifying motives or causes, making inferences, and finding evidence to support generalizations. Analogy ([[upmana pramana]]) is based on the similarities between two objects, their comparison and knowledge are inferred from the connection.

4. Analyze: It draws connections among ideas, determining how the parts relate to one another, identifying motives or causes, making inferences, and finding evidence to support generalizations. Analogy ([[upamana pramana]]) is based on the similarities between two objects, their comparison and knowledge are inferred from the connection.

5. Evaluate.

5. Evaluate.