Difference between revisions of "Upamana pramana"

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===Importance in understanding [[Ayurveda]] anatomy===
 
===Importance in understanding [[Ayurveda]] anatomy===
  
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Upamana pramana is most extensively used to describe the anatomical structures. The qualities and morphology of entities like semen ([[shukra]]), menstrual fluid ([[artava]]), bones ([[asthi]]), joints (sandhi), tendons (snayu), organs like heart (hridaya), bladder and urinary system (basti), body membranes (kala) are best described using the references from upamana pramana. Sushruta Samhita has thus extensively described various upamana for the above-mentioned entities in shareera sthana of the text. For instance, the functioning of cartilage and ligaments (snayu) is compared to that of a boat. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.5/33]<ref name=Susruta/> The appearance of female genitalia (yoni) is compared with conch (Shankha Nabhi). [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.5/43] Morphology of heart (hridaya) is comparable with lotus (pundrika).[Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.4/31]  
+
Upamana pramana is most extensively used to describe the anatomical structures. The qualities and morphology of entities like semen ([[shukra]]), menstrual fluid ([[artava]]), bones ([[asthi]]), joints (sandhi), tendons (snayu), organs like heart (hridaya), bladder and urinary system (basti), body membranes (kala) are best described using the references from upamana pramana. Sushruta Samhita has thus extensively described various upamana for the above-mentioned entities in shareera sthana of the text. For instance, the functioning of cartilage and ligaments (snayu) is compared to that of a boat. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.5/33]<ref name=Susruta/> The appearance of female genitalia (yoni) is compared with conch (Shankha Nabhi). [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.5/43] Morphology of heart (hridaya) is comparable with lotus (pundrika).[Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.4/31]
 +
 
 +
===Importance in diagnosis===
 +
 
 +
Upamana pramana has immense applicability in diagnosing different diseases. The basis of nomenclature of diseases is mainly dependent on upamana pramana. The table given below throws light upon the various names of diseases ([[vyadhi]]) derived by the application of upamana pramana.
 +
 
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|+ Table 1: Nomenclature of diseases based on analogy
 +
|-
 +
! Name of the disease  !! The simile used for description !! The rationale behind the description of simile
 +
|-
 +
| | Dandalasaka || danda or rod || The body becomes stiff like a rod due to accumulation of [[ama]] in the body. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]].8/42]
 +
|-
 +
| | Vidari || vidari stem or tuber || The shape of papules/pustules/carbuncles (pidaka) is similar to Pueraria tuberosa or Indian Kudgu (vidari) stem.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 17/83]
 +
|-
 +
| | Kacchapika || shell of tortoise || The shape of pidaka is hard and smooth like the shell of tortoise [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 17/83]
 +
|-
 +
| | Sarshapi || mustard seeds || Boils are similar to appearance of mustard seeds.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 17/83]
 +
|-
 +
| | Madhumeha || honey || The appearance of urine is compared to that of honey.[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 17/80]
 +
|-
 +
| | Tilakalaka || sesame seeds || The appearance of pigmentation or mole is comparable to tila. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 18/25]
 +
|-
 +
| | Alaji || [[agni]] (fire) || Appears and burns like fire. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 17/83]
 +
|-
 +
| | Dhanustambha || dhanusha/bow || There is backward bending of body resembling bow like in opisthotonos. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/46]
 +
|-
 +
| | Masurika || masura (red gram) ||The appearance of pidaka is similar to that of red gram [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 12/93]
 +
|-
 +
| | Suryavarta || movement of the Sun || The manifestation/occurrence of pain in this condition is dependent on the time of day and hence the movement of the sun i.e. the pain in head increases with the rising of the sun. [Cha.Sa.[[Siddhi Sthana]] 9/79-83]
 +
|-
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
It is also used to decipher the symptoms of different diseases mentioned in the texts.
 +
 
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|+ Table 2: Clinical features based on analogy
 +
|-
 +
!  Disease !! Upama rendered with meaning  !! Reference in the text
 +
|-
 +
| | Kaphaja Hridriga || Ashmavatapeeda (feeling of heaviness in the chest as if a stone is placed over the chest) ||[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]]17/35]
 +
|-
 +
| | Krimija Hridroga || Suchivatpeeda (pricking pain like the needle is pricked onto the skin) Shastra-chhedanavatpeeda (pain similar to injury by a weapon) || [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]]17/39]
 +
|-
 +
| | Vidradhi || Chronic vidradhi is compared to shastra, vidyut and agni i.e., weapon, lightening and fire, depicting its grave consequences like marmachhedana, fatality || [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]]17/103]
 +
|-
 +
| | Sanyasa || Kashthibhootamritopama (rigid like a rod) depicts that the unconscious person appears to be in the vegetative stage. || [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 24/44]
 +
|-
 +
| | Pittaja raktapitta || The different colours are used to depict the appearance of [[raktapitta]], Gomutrasannibha i.e. similar to cow’s urine, mechakagaradhoomabha- similar to smoke, anjanabh (appears like collyrium) || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]]4/12]
 +
|-
 +
| | Pittaja Gulma || Vranavat means the pain and burning sensation in pittaja gulma is compared with that of injury or wound || [Cha.Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]] 5/13]
 +
|-
 +
| | Tridoshaja Gulma || Ashmavat means the tenderness or sensation of tridoshaja gulma is similar to a stone || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 5/17]
 +
|-
 +
| | Kaksha || Yajnopaveetapratima compared to Hindu sacred thread worn by males as it resembles the lesion that occurs in the part of the axilla. || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 12/91]
 +
|-
 +
| | Pleehodara || Kachapasansthan - shell of tortoise - The texture of pleehodara is hard and smooth, like the tortoise shell.  || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 13/37]
 +
|-
 +
| | Udakodara || Udakapoornadutikshobha (leather bag filled with water) on the palpation of udara (abdomen), in ascites it feels like a bag filled with water. || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 13/47]
 +
|-
 +
| | Appearance of arsha || Appearance of different types of arsha (haemorrhoids) using the examples of commonly observed phenomena like yakitakhandopama (similar to lobe of liver)  etc. || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 14]
 +
|-
 +
| | Kamala || Bhekavarna (toad like) appearance and color of the skin become similar to that of  a toad || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].16/35]
 +
|-
 +
| | Shwasa || Matta-rishabhaevashwasa in mahashwasa. In this condition, the breathing is accompanied by loud sound comparable to an intoxicated bull. || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 17/46]
 +
|-
 +
| | [[Purvarupa]] of [[kasa]] || Shookapoorna gala (thorns in throat). There is an intense itching sensation and pain in the throat as if there is presence of thorns in the throat. || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].18/5]
 +
|-
 +
| | Shatajakaasa || Paravataevakujana- the sound of cough similar to the humming of pigeon. || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikista Sthana]].18/23]
 +
|-
 +
| | Atisara || Appearance of stools in tridoshaja atisaara is like yakritkhandopama (similar to liver), mechakabham (like ashes) || [Cha.Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]].19/9]
 +
|-
 +
| | Agni visarpa || The [[vata]]-[[pitta]] prominence is observed in the pathology of [[visarpa]] where there is intense burning and pain similar to agni (fire) || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].19/35]
 +
|-
 +
| | Trishna || Tapta-siktasutoya-description of the use of cold water to obtain relief in madyajatrishna as there is a reduction in the hotness of sand by pouring of the cold water || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].22/19]
 +
|-
 +
| | Madatyaya || Tritiya madalakshana- bhagnadaruivanishkriya. This depicts the condition of a patient in the third stage of madatyaya where one appears to be comatose or immobile like a degraded piece of wood. || [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].24/48]
 +
|-
 +
| | Mutra-ashmari || Kadampushpakriti (similar to the kadambapushpa) – The renal calculi appears identical to the flower of kadamba || [Cha.Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]].26/37]
 +
|-
 +
| | Vatarakta || Agnimaruta-tulyasya - pathology of vatarakta is considered to be identical to the combination of [[agni]] and [[vata]] || [Cha. Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]].29/3]
 +
|-
 +
| | Apatantraka || Kapota evakujeta - The sound or voice of the person becomes similar to a dove pigeon  || [Cha.Sa.[[Siddhi Sthana]].9/14]
 +
|-
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
 
  
  
 
  Article under development.
 
  Article under development.

Revision as of 08:41, 21 April 2022


Upamana pramana is acquiring knowledge with some analogous examples or similar known descriptions. It is the source of our knowledge regarding the relationship between names and things to be named. Upamana is assimilative knowledge. The base of knowledge is the resemblance or similarities and dissimilarities between two objects and their comparison to obtaining knowledge about unknown phenomena. Sushruta explained this as a separate tool for learning. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana. 1/16][1] Other ancient scholars like Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga , Jain , Bauddha included this pramana under anumana pramana. It has immense utility in the field of medicine. The present article describes applications of analogy in nomenclature, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases.

Contributors
Section/Chapter/topic Concepts/Pramana/Upamana pramana
Authors Bhojani M. K. 1, Joglekar A. A.2
Reviewer Basisht G.3,
Editors Deole Y.S.4Basisht G.3
Affiliations

1 Department of Sharira Kriya, All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi

2Department of Samhita Siddhant, All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi

3 Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre, I.T.R.A., Jamnagar, India

4 Department of Kayachikitsa, G.J.Patel Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Research, New Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India
Correspondence emails

meera.samhita@aiia.gov.in,

carakasamhita@gmail.com
Date of first publication: April08, 2022
DOI under process

Etymology and derivation

The word ‘upamana’ is derived from Sanskrit verb ‘ma’, meaning to measure or to know and a prefix ‘upa’ meaning towards or near to or resemblance.[2]

Monnier Williams dictionary defines upamana as a comparison, resemblance, analogy, simile, or an object with which anything is compared.[3] Apte Sanskrit dictionary describes upamana as resemblance, comparison.[4]

Definition

In Charak Samhita, upamana pramana is described ‘aupamya’ in context of logical terms for reasoning (vaadamarga). It is the description of the similarity between two objects. Analogy of the disease dandaka (disease or condition where body becomes rigid like a rod) and danda (rod) is described. Dhanustambha (tetany oropisthotonos) is named due to its similarity with dhanushya (bow) and a physician with that of an archer. [Cha.Sa.Vimana Sthana 8/42]

Upamana is method of obtaining knowledge through the comparison with well-known or established fact. It is particularly instrumental in obtaining knowledge of objects that are minute, rejected, distant or complex to comprehend. [Dalhana on Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana.1/16].[1]

Tarkasangraha defines upamana as an instrumental cause or act of comparing two phenomena with each other. [Tarkasangraha 56][5] Finding the relation or comparison between the characteristic feature and one possessing it, is termed as ‘upamiti’. It is the cognition through the means of upamana (analogy). Tarkasangraha gives an example of wild animal termed ‘gavaya’ which resembles a cow. When an individual is unaware about the identification or appearance of gavaya, on noticing the unknown animal he recollects the information regarding the resemblance with a cow and can predict that the animal is gavaya. Thus designation of gavaya is only possible after knowing its resemblance with a known entities like cow. This is possible with the help of upamana pramana.[6]

Synonyms

  1. Sadrishya Dnyana [Tarkasangraha]
  2. Aupamya [Cha.Sa.Vimana Sthana.8/42]
  3. Upamiti [Tarkasangraha]
  4. Drishtanta [Cha.Sa.Vimana Sthana.8/31]
  5. Udaharana [Cha.Sa.Vimana Sthana.8/149] , [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.Vimana Sthana.8/3]

Types of upamana pramana

Nyaya philosophy describes three classifications of upamana pramana as below:

  1. Sadrishya-vishishtapindadnyana (similarity-based)
  2. Vaidharmya-vishishtapindadnyana (dissimilarity based)
  3. Asadharanadharma vishishta (peculiarity based)

[Nyayavarthika Teeka on Nyaya Darshana][7]

Some scholars accept only two types of upamana i.e. one based on similarity (sadharmya-upamana) and one based on dissimilarity (vaidharmya-upamana).[8]

1. Similarity (sadrishya): The knowledge occurs based on the similarity between two objects or phenomena. For instance, the similarity of appearance between mole (tilakalaka) and sesame seed (tila).

2. Dissimilarity (vaidharmya): The knowledge is based on the dissimilarity in the comparable objects. For instance, a horse differs from an elephant due to lack of trunk. This enables observer to differentiate between the two. Similarly, the disease vomiting (chhardi) varies from loose stools (atisara) based on distinct prodromal signs.

3. Peculiarity (asadharana dharma vishishtapindadnyana): It is the peculiarity or specialty of a particular object or phenomenon that differentiates it from the rest of phenomena. For instance, the fever (jwara) is different from every other disease due to its peculiar symptom of pyrexia or santapa.

Importance

Upamana pramana helps to understand new, unknown or invisible objects on the basis of recognition and proven phenomena. This helps in generalization of concept that can be understood by individuals of varied intellect. It also helps in easy comprehension of the subject enabling the lay persons or beginners to understand the same. It is also important source of knowledge for other pramana like pratyaksha pramana, anumana pramana and aptopadesha. According to some theories, upamana pramana requires the knowledge of other pramana including direct perception (pratyaksha), inferential knowledge (anumana) and authoritative statements (aaptopadesha).

Importance in understanding Ayurveda physiology

The theory of similarity in man and the Universe (loka-purusha samya) is largely based on the upamana pramana. The purusha or individual is considered as epitome or miniature of the universe.[Cha.Sa.Shareera Sthana.5/5] The different organs and entities in the human body represent the entities in the universe.[Cha.Sa.Shareera Sthana.4/13] For instance, in a person, prithvi, apa, tejas, vayu, akasha, and brahman are represented in structural form, moisture, heat, vital breath, space, and oneself (atman), respectively. Similarly, Indra in the universe is represented by ego in the person. Aditya (the sun) is represented in the catabolic processes. Rudra is manifestation of agitation, Soma (the moon) is cheerfulness, Vasu is happiness, Marut (the air) is enthusiasm, Ashwin is lustre, Vishvadeva are sense organs and their objects, darkness is ignorance, light is knowledge.[9] This relationship between microcosm and macrocosm is best determined by upamana pramana.

The different theories of transformation and nourishment of tissues (dhatuposhana nyaya) namely ksheeradadhi nyaya, kedarikulya nyaya, khalekapot nyaya are also based on the concept of upamana pramana.[Chakrapani commentary on Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana.28/4]

The physiology in Ayurveda is largely based on functional aspects than anatomical or structural components. Thus, the functions of entities like dosha, dhatu, srotas can be understood using the similes of environmental components depicting resemblance in functions and appearance. The tridosha and their functioning is commonly compared with wind (vayu), sun (surya) and moon (soma), highlighting the application of upamana pramana.[Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana.26/292][Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana.28/246]

The different maxims (nyaya) mentioned in Ayurveda like Shabdarchijalasantana nyaya also depict the similarities between the universe and individual physiology and guide the reader in understanding the basic concepts like digestion according to Ayurveda. [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana.14/16][1] Different physiological concepts and assessment criteria like phenotype (prakriti), similarity of the phenotype of humans and animals (anukatva) [Su.Sa.Shareera Sthana.4/64-73][1] are explained with the help of upamana pramana.

Importance in understanding Ayurveda anatomy

Upamana pramana is most extensively used to describe the anatomical structures. The qualities and morphology of entities like semen (shukra), menstrual fluid (artava), bones (asthi), joints (sandhi), tendons (snayu), organs like heart (hridaya), bladder and urinary system (basti), body membranes (kala) are best described using the references from upamana pramana. Sushruta Samhita has thus extensively described various upamana for the above-mentioned entities in shareera sthana of the text. For instance, the functioning of cartilage and ligaments (snayu) is compared to that of a boat. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.5/33][1] The appearance of female genitalia (yoni) is compared with conch (Shankha Nabhi). [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.5/43] Morphology of heart (hridaya) is comparable with lotus (pundrika).[Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.4/31]

Importance in diagnosis

Upamana pramana has immense applicability in diagnosing different diseases. The basis of nomenclature of diseases is mainly dependent on upamana pramana. The table given below throws light upon the various names of diseases (vyadhi) derived by the application of upamana pramana.

Table 1: Nomenclature of diseases based on analogy
Name of the disease The simile used for description The rationale behind the description of simile
Dandalasaka danda or rod The body becomes stiff like a rod due to accumulation of ama in the body. [Cha.Sa.Vimana Sthana.8/42]
Vidari vidari stem or tuber The shape of papules/pustules/carbuncles (pidaka) is similar to Pueraria tuberosa or Indian Kudgu (vidari) stem.[Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 17/83]
Kacchapika shell of tortoise The shape of pidaka is hard and smooth like the shell of tortoise [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 17/83]
Sarshapi mustard seeds Boils are similar to appearance of mustard seeds.[Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 17/83]
Madhumeha honey The appearance of urine is compared to that of honey.[Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 17/80]
Tilakalaka sesame seeds The appearance of pigmentation or mole is comparable to tila. [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 18/25]
Alaji agni (fire) Appears and burns like fire. [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 17/83]
Dhanustambha dhanusha/bow There is backward bending of body resembling bow like in opisthotonos. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 28/46]
Masurika masura (red gram) The appearance of pidaka is similar to that of red gram [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/93]
Suryavarta movement of the Sun The manifestation/occurrence of pain in this condition is dependent on the time of day and hence the movement of the sun i.e. the pain in head increases with the rising of the sun. [Cha.Sa.Siddhi Sthana 9/79-83]

It is also used to decipher the symptoms of different diseases mentioned in the texts.

Table 2: Clinical features based on analogy
Disease Upama rendered with meaning Reference in the text
Kaphaja Hridriga Ashmavatapeeda (feeling of heaviness in the chest as if a stone is placed over the chest) [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana17/35]
Krimija Hridroga Suchivatpeeda (pricking pain like the needle is pricked onto the skin) Shastra-chhedanavatpeeda (pain similar to injury by a weapon) [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana17/39]
Vidradhi Chronic vidradhi is compared to shastra, vidyut and agni i.e., weapon, lightening and fire, depicting its grave consequences like marmachhedana, fatality [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana17/103]
Sanyasa Kashthibhootamritopama (rigid like a rod) depicts that the unconscious person appears to be in the vegetative stage. [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 24/44]
Pittaja raktapitta The different colours are used to depict the appearance of raktapitta, Gomutrasannibha i.e. similar to cow’s urine, mechakagaradhoomabha- similar to smoke, anjanabh (appears like collyrium) [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana4/12]
Pittaja Gulma Vranavat means the pain and burning sensation in pittaja gulma is compared with that of injury or wound [Cha.Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 5/13]
Tridoshaja Gulma Ashmavat means the tenderness or sensation of tridoshaja gulma is similar to a stone [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 5/17]
Kaksha Yajnopaveetapratima compared to Hindu sacred thread worn by males as it resembles the lesion that occurs in the part of the axilla. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/91]
Pleehodara Kachapasansthan - shell of tortoise - The texture of pleehodara is hard and smooth, like the tortoise shell. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/37]
Udakodara Udakapoornadutikshobha (leather bag filled with water) on the palpation of udara (abdomen), in ascites it feels like a bag filled with water. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/47]
Appearance of arsha Appearance of different types of arsha (haemorrhoids) using the examples of commonly observed phenomena like yakitakhandopama (similar to lobe of liver) etc. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 14]
Kamala Bhekavarna (toad like) appearance and color of the skin become similar to that of a toad [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana.16/35]
Shwasa Matta-rishabhaevashwasa in mahashwasa. In this condition, the breathing is accompanied by loud sound comparable to an intoxicated bull. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 17/46]
Purvarupa of kasa Shookapoorna gala (thorns in throat). There is an intense itching sensation and pain in the throat as if there is presence of thorns in the throat. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana.18/5]
Shatajakaasa Paravataevakujana- the sound of cough similar to the humming of pigeon. [Cha.Sa.Chikista Sthana.18/23]
Atisara Appearance of stools in tridoshaja atisaara is like yakritkhandopama (similar to liver), mechakabham (like ashes) [Cha.Sa. Chikitsa Sthana.19/9]
Agni visarpa The vata-pitta prominence is observed in the pathology of visarpa where there is intense burning and pain similar to agni (fire) [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana.19/35]
Trishna Tapta-siktasutoya-description of the use of cold water to obtain relief in madyajatrishna as there is a reduction in the hotness of sand by pouring of the cold water [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana.22/19]
Madatyaya Tritiya madalakshana- bhagnadaruivanishkriya. This depicts the condition of a patient in the third stage of madatyaya where one appears to be comatose or immobile like a degraded piece of wood. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana.24/48]
Mutra-ashmari Kadampushpakriti (similar to the kadambapushpa) – The renal calculi appears identical to the flower of kadamba [Cha.Sa. Chikitsa Sthana.26/37]
Vatarakta Agnimaruta-tulyasya - pathology of vatarakta is considered to be identical to the combination of agni and vata [Cha. Sa.Chikitsa Sthana.29/3]
Apatantraka Kapota evakujeta - The sound or voice of the person becomes similar to a dove pigeon [Cha.Sa.Siddhi Sthana.9/14] 



Article under development.
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Sushruta. Sushruta Samhita. Edited by Jadavaji Trikamji Aacharya. 8th ed. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia;2005.
  2. ↑ Sushruta, Sushrut Samhita, Sutra Sthana, Vedotpatti Adhyaya, 1/16, edited by Acharya Jadavji Trikamji, Reprinted 2017 Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi, Page no 4 0764-c" https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW72&page=0764-c
  3. ↑ MW Cologne Scan [Internet]. [cited 2022 Feb 13]. Available from: https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW & page=203
  4. ↑ AP90 Cologne Scan [Internet]. [cited 2022 Mar 14]. Available from: https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/cslapidev/servepdf.php?dict=AP90&page=0326-b
  5. ↑ Annambhatta, Tarkasangraha, edited by Satkari sharma, Upamana Paricheda, Shloka number 56, reprinted 2011, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi, page no 63-64
  6. ↑ A laxmipathi, A textbook of ayurveda philosophical background, Upamana, Chapter 3, Volume 1, Section 2, First edition ,2004, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratisthana, Delhi, Page no. 40
  7. ↑ Vachaspati, Nyayavartika Teeka on Nyaya Darshana, Prathamadhyaya, Upamana Pramana, Traividhyam, Shloka 43, printed published and sold by Jayakrishnadas haridas gupta, chaukhamba Sanskrit series office, Varanasi, page no. 197-199
  8. ↑ Yogesh Chandra Mishra, Padartha Vigyana, Edited by Prof. Dr. Jyotiramitra Acharya, Edition 2004, Varanasi, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Bhavan, Chapter No.15, Page No.455.
  9. ↑ Purusha Vichaya Sharira [Internet]. Charak Samhita. 2021 [cited 2022 Feb 24]. Available from: https://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/index.php?title=Purusha_Vichaya_Sharira
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