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|title=Charak Samhita
|title=Charak Samhita
|titlemode=append
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|keywords= *Kumkuma, Crocus sativus L., saffron* Therapeutic use, herbs, researches on dravya, Charak Samhita, Dravyaguna, carakasamhitaonline, carakasamhita, caraka samhita, Ayurveda, Charak Samhita English translation, ancient Ayurveda text, Indian system of medicine, Ayurveda, Charak, Charaka Samhita, agnivesha, atreya, gopal basisht, yogesh deole, charak samhita wikipedia edition, charak samhita new edition, charaka samhita new edition, carak samhita new edition, caraka samhita new edition, research on charak samhita, text book charak samhita, fundamental principles of ayurveda, basic concepts of ayurveda,
|keywords= *Kumkuma, Crocus sativus L., saffron* Therapeutic use, herbs, researches on dravya, Charak Samhita, Dravyaguna, carakasamhitaonline, carakasamhita, caraka samhita, Ayurveda, Charak Samhita English translation, ancient Ayurveda text, Indian system of medicine, Charak, Charaka Samhita, agnivesha, atreya, gopal basisht, yogesh deole, charak samhita wikipedia edition, charak samhita new edition, research on charak samhita, text book charak samhita, fundamental principles of ayurveda, basic concepts of ayurveda,
|description=  
|description= Kumkuma (Crocus sativus L.) is a classical Ayurvedic drug (saffron) used for vomiting, cough, wounds, skin and eye diseases and migraine; clinical and experimental studies report antidepressant, cognitive, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antioxidant and antidiabetic effects.
|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
|image_alt=charak samhita
|image_alt=charak samhita
|type=article
|type=article
}}[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]
}}
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]


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|data7 =  [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre]]
|data7 =  [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre]]
|label8 = DOI  
|label8 = DOI  
|data8  = {{DoiWithLink}}
|data8  = Awaited
}}
}}


'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]''' (commonly known as '''Kumkuma''' or Saffron) is a geophytic perennial plant renowned worldwide for its aromatic and medicinal stigmas. It is highly valued in [[Ayurveda]] for its exceptional skin-enhancing (varnya), neuroprotective, and tridosha-pacifying properties, occupying a prominent place in classical formulations and therapeutic texts.
'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]''' (commonly known as '''Kumkuma''' or Saffron) is a perennial plant (Iridaceae) whose dried red stigmas form the spice saffron. It is used in [[Ayurveda]] in classical formulations and for the conditions listed below.


==English name==
==English name==
Line 123: Line 124:
==Current researches ==
==Current researches ==


== Phytochemical Composition ==
== Phytoconstituents ==
The exceptional therapeutic and aromatic profile of ''Crocus sativus'' stigmata is attributed to its rich secondary metabolite content:
Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. Only constituents supported by a checked reference are listed (one reference per class).
* '''Apocarotenoids:''' Highly abundant water-soluble carotenoids, notably crocetin and its glycoside crocin, which impart the characteristic golden-yellow color.
 
* '''Monoterpene Aldehydes:''' Picrocrocin, responsible for the characteristic bitter taste.
{| class="wikitable"
* '''Volatile Compounds:''' Safranal, derived from the breakdown of picrocrocin, accounting for the primary aroma and significant biological activity.
|+ Phytoconstituents of ''Crocus sativus''
* '''Flavonoids and Bioactive Amines:''' Kaempferol derivatives, anthocyanins, and essential amino acids.
! Class !! Constituents !! Property / role !! Reference
|-
| Apocarotenoids and monoterpene aldehyde || Crocin (crocetin glycoside), picrocrocin, safranal || Crocin gives colour, picrocrocin the bitter taste, safranal the odour and aroma. Crocin hydrolyses to gentiobiose and crocetin; picrocrocin hydrolyses to glucose and safranal. || <ref name="Srivastava2010">Srivastava R, Ahmed H, Dixit RK, Dharamveer, Saraf SA. Crocus sativus L.: A comprehensive review. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(8):200–208.</ref>
|-
| Flavonoids || Kaempferol glycosides (major flavonoids of the flower) || Flower (tepals) || <ref name="Moratalla2019">Moratalla-López N, Bagur MJ, Lorenzo C, et al. Bioactivity and bioavailability of the major metabolites of Crocus sativus L. flower. Molecules. 2019;24(15):2827. doi:10.3390/molecules24152827</ref>
|}


== Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy ==
== Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy ==
Findings below come from the cited studies only. Several are small pilot trials or animal studies, so they do not by themselves establish clinical efficacy.
=== Antidepressant Activity ===
In a 6-week pilot double-blind randomized trial of 30 adult outpatients with mild to moderate major depression, saffron stigma 30 mg/day was found to be similar in effect to imipramine 100 mg/day. Anticholinergic effects (dry mouth) and sedation were more frequent with imipramine. The trial had no placebo arm, and the authors call for a larger placebo-controlled trial.<ref name="Akhondzadeh2004">Akhondzadeh S, Fallah-Pour H, Afkham K, Jamshidi AH, Khalighi-Cigaroudi F. Comparison of Crocus sativus L. and imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial [ISRCTN45683816]. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2004;4:12. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-4-12</ref>


=== Neuroprotective and Pro-Cognitive Effects ===
=== Cognitive Function (Alzheimer's Disease) ===
Saffron demonstrates profound neuroprotective properties, showing substantial efficacy in managing neurodegenerative conditions, memory deficits, and clinical depression.
In a 16-week double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 46 patients with probable mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease, saffron 30 mg/day produced significantly better cognitive outcomes than placebo on ADAS-cog and CDR (P = 0.04 for both). The authors describe it as short-term evidence and ask for larger confirmatory trials.<ref name="Akhondzadeh2010">Akhondzadeh S, Sabet MS, Harirchian MH, et al. Saffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2010;35(5):581–588. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01133.x</ref>
* '''Mechanism:''' Active constituents like crocin and safranal act as potent antioxidants and anti-apoptotic agents within cerebral tissues. They inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, reduce oxidative stress markers, and modulate monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Experimental and clinical trials confirm that saffron extract significantly improves cognitive function, memory retention, and exhibits antidepressant efficacy comparable to standard pharmacological therapies without severe adverse effects.<ref name="Akhondzadeh2004"/>


=== Cardioprotective and Antihyperlipidemic Efficacy ===
=== Anti-inflammatory and Antinociceptive Activity ===
Saffron supports cardiovascular health by modulating lipid profiles and protecting myocardial tissues from oxidative injury.
In mice, aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron stigma and petal showed antinociceptive activity in the acetic-acid writhing test but not in the hot-plate test; naloxone partially blocked only the stigma aqueous extract. Only stigma extracts had weak to moderate effects in acute (xylene ear-oedema) inflammation, while in chronic (formalin paw-oedema) inflammation both stigma extracts and the ethanolic petal extract were active.<ref name="Hosseinzadeh2002">Hosseinzadeh H, Younesi HM. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocus sativus L. stigma and petal extracts in mice. BMC Pharmacol. 2002;2:7. doi:10.1186/1471-2210-2-7</ref>
* '''Mechanism:''' Crocetin enhances oxygen diffusion across cell membranes, while general antioxidant compounds reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and systemic inflammation.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' In vivo and clinical studies indicate that regular administration helps reduce total cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipid peroxidation while maintaining healthy blood pressure parameters.<ref name="Verma2007"/>


=== Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic, and Wound Healing Actions ===
=== Antioxidant Activity ===
Aligning with classical indications for pain relief (such as migraine and siroroga) and wound healing (vrana), modern studies validate its anti-inflammatory capacity.
In 20 human subjects (10 healthy, 10 with coronary artery disease) given saffron 50 mg twice daily in milk, lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility fell significantly over 6 weeks (healthy 66.4 to 38.3; CAD 76.0 to 48.8; P < 0.001), indicating an antioxidant effect. The study did not report lipid-lowering or clinical cardiovascular outcomes.<ref name="Verma1998">Verma SK, Bordia A. Antioxidant property of saffron in man. Indian J Med Sci. 1998;52(5):205–207.</ref>
* '''Mechanism:''' Bioactive components suppress the production of inflammatory cytokines and inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX) pathways.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Experimental models of inflammation and tissue injury demonstrate accelerated wound closure, reduced edema, and significant analgesic responses following topical or systemic administration.<ref name="Hosseinzadeh2009"/>


=== Antidiabetic and Metabolic Regulation ===
=== Antidiabetic Activity ===
Modern pharmacological evaluations substantiate its utility in metabolic disorders by improving insulin sensitivity and safeguarding pancreatic cells.
In alloxan-diabetic rats given 6 weeks of daily oral treatment, saffron methanolic extract (80 and 240 mg/kg), crocin (50 and 150 mg/kg) and safranal (0.25 and 0.5 ml/kg) significantly reduced fasting blood glucose and HbA1c and raised blood insulin, without significant changes in SGOT, SGPT or creatinine.<ref name="Kianbakht2011">Kianbakht S, Hajiaghaee R. Anti-hyperglycemic effects of saffron and its active constituents, crocin and safranal, in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Med Plants. 2011;10(39):82–89.</ref>
* '''Mechanism:''' It enhances glucose uptake in peripheral tissues, reduces insulin resistance, and mitigates advanced glycation end-product accumulation.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Research models show marked amelioration of hyperglycemia and protection against diabetes-induced oxidative stress in target organs.<ref name="Kianbakht2011"/>


== Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage ==
== Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage ==
* '''Acute Toxicity:''' While therapeutic doses are extremely low and safe, high doses exceeding 5 g can induce systemic toxicity, and doses above 10–20 g can result in toxic side effects or prove fatal. It should be strictly avoided in high doses during pregnancy due to potential uterine-stimulant effects.
* '''Human safety:''' The safety of saffron tablets has been evaluated in healthy volunteers.<ref name="Modaghegh2008">Modaghegh MH, Shahabian M, Esmaeili HA, Rajbai O, Hosseinzadeh H. Safety evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus) tablets in healthy volunteers. Phytomedicine. 2008;15(12):1032–1037. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2008.06.003</ref>
* '''Precautions:''' Always administer within prescribed clinical limits under professional guidance.
* '''Precautions:''' Toxic-dose thresholds and pregnancy risk were not confirmed in the sources checked, so none are stated here. Use within classical dose limits under professional guidance.
* '''Standard Therapeutic Dosage:'''
* '''Classical dose:''' 25–50 mg (see Dose above).
** ''Stigma Powder / Extract:'' 25–50 mg daily as recommended by pharmacopoeial guidelines.<ref name="API1986"/>


== Summary of Therapeutic Profile ==
== Summary of Therapeutic Profile ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: left;"
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: left;"
|+ Therapeutic Applications of ''Crocus sativus''
|+ Evidence for ''Crocus sativus'' (see sections above for references)
! Indication
! Indication !! Evidence type !! Principal finding
! Active Biomolecules
|-
! Primary Pharmacological Action
| '''Mild to moderate depression''' || Human pilot RCT (n=30, 6 weeks) || Similar to imipramine
|-
|-
| '''Depression & Cognitive Decline'''
| '''Mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease''' || Human RCT (n=46, 16 weeks) || Better ADAS-cog and CDR than placebo
| Crocin, Safranal
| Neuroprotection, Monoamine modulation, AChE inhibition
|-
|-
| '''Cardiovascular & Lipid Disorders'''
| '''Pain and inflammation (Siroroga/Vrana)''' || Mouse and rat models || Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity, extract-dependent
| Crocetin, Flavonoids
| Antioxidant defense, LDL oxidation inhibition, Lipid reduction
|-
|-
| '''Inflammation & Pain (Siroroga/Vrana)'''
| '''Oxidative stress / coronary artery disease''' || Human study (n=20, 6 weeks) || Reduced lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility
| Crocin, Kaempferol
| COX inhibition, Cytokine suppression, Tissue repair acceleration
|-
|-
| '''Metabolic Imbalance & Diabetes'''
| '''Diabetes''' || Alloxan-diabetic rats || Lower glucose and HbA1c, higher insulin
| Crocetin glycosides
| Insulin sensitivity enhancement, Glycemic control
|}
|}


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<ref name="Chunekar2020">Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74</ref>
<ref name="Chunekar2020">Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74</ref>
<ref name="Tripathi2006">Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43</ref>
<ref name="Tripathi2006">Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43</ref>
<ref name="Akhondzadeh2004">{{cite journal |last1=Akhondzadeh |first1=S. |last2=Fallah-Pour |first2=H. |last3=Afkham |first3=K. |last4=Jamshidi |first4=A. H. |last5=Khalighi-Sigaroodi |first5=F. |year=2004 |title=Comparison of Crocus sativus L. and Imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial |journal=BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=4 |pages=12}}</ref>
<ref name="Verma2007">{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=S. K. |last2=Bordia |first2=A. |year=2007 |title=Antioxidant property of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its potential in atherosclerosis |journal=Indian Journal of Medical Sciences |volume=61 |issue=5 |pages=275–281}}</ref>
<ref name="Hosseinzadeh2009">{{cite journal |last1=Hosseinzadeh |first1=H. |last2=Shams |first2=V. |year=2009 |title=Evaluation of analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocus sativus stigma extracts and their constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice |journal=BMC Pharmacology |volume=6 |pages=7}}</ref>
<ref name="Kianbakht2011">{{cite journal |last1=Kianbakht |first1=S. |last2=Hajiaghaee |first2=R. |year=2011 |title=Anti-diabetic properties of Crocus sativus L. stigmas and their constituents |journal=Journal of Medicinal Plants Research |volume=5 |issue=17 |pages=4166–4172}}</ref>
}}
}}


[[Category: Database of herbs and minerals | Herbs]]
[[Category: Database of herbs and minerals | Herbs]]

Latest revision as of 06:29, 8 October 2026

Crocus sativus L.

Kumkuma
Section/Chapter Herb database/Kumkuma
Botanical name(s) Crocus sativus L.
Family Iridaceae
Availability Available
Contributors Team Dravyaguna
Year of publication 2026
Publisher Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre
DOI Awaited

Crocus sativus L. (commonly known as Kumkuma or Saffron) is a perennial plant (Iridaceae) whose dried red stigmas form the spice saffron. It is used in Ayurveda in classical formulations and for the conditions listed below.

English name

Saffron

Therapeutic uses

Chardi (vomiting), kasa (cough), vrana (wound), vyanga, siroroga, Drushti roga (eye disease), kantha roga (throat disease), sidhma (skin disease), udavarta (upward movement of air), mutragraha, suryavarta, ardhavabhedaka (migraine)[1]

Synonyms in Charak Samhita

Kumkum, Ghusana, Kashmira (grows in kashmir region), Vahlika (found in bahlika desa)

Synonyms in bhavprakasa nighantu

Rakta (red in colour), Pitakam (imparts yellow colour if mixed with water), varam, sankoch, pishuna (has got strong odour), shonitabhidhyam[2]

Types

Bhavaprakash nighantu

Mentioned 3 types

  1. Kasmira
  2. Bahlika
  3. Parasika

Raja nighantu

Mentioned 2 types[3]

  1. Kumkuma
  2. Truna kumjuma

Properties

Kasmira

  • Suksmakesarayukta (Small stigma)
  • Raktavarna (Red in colour)
  • Padmagandhi (Aroma like that of lotus)

Bahlika

  • Sukla (White)
  • Pita varna (Yellow)
  • Ketaki gandha (aroma like pandanus)
  • Suksma kesara (Small stigma)

Parasika

  • Madhugandha (Honey like odour)
  • Isatpandura varna (Whitish in colour)
  • Sthulakesara (Bigger stigma)

Ayurvedic pharmacological properties

Properties
Sr.no. Pharmacological criteria Properties
1 Taste (rasa) Pungent (katu), Bitter (tikta)
2 Potency (veerya) Hot (ushna)
3 Post digestion effect (vipaka) Pungent (katu)
4 Qualities (guna) Unctuous (snigdha)
5 Actions (karma) Pacify Kapha and Vata, imparts complexion to skin (varnya)

Reference in Charak Samhita and its actions

Herbs and their activities
Sr.no. Reference in Charak Samhita Activity
1 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/54 As an ingredient of Mrita sanjivani agada
2 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/78 As an ingredient of Mahagandha hasti agada
3 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/190 As an ingredient of Mamsyadi yoga
4 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 28/152 As an ingredient of Bala taila
5 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 28/162 As an ingredient of Amrutadi taila

Dose

Important formulations

As per A.P.I.[1]

  • Karpuradyarka
  • Balarka rasa
  • Kumkumadya taila
  • Mahanarayan taila
  • Pushyanug churna

Current availability

Available

  • In India – Cultivated primarily in Jammu & Kashmir.

Current researches

Phytoconstituents

Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. Only constituents supported by a checked reference are listed (one reference per class).

Phytoconstituents of Crocus sativus
Class Constituents Property / role Reference
Apocarotenoids and monoterpene aldehyde Crocin (crocetin glycoside), picrocrocin, safranal Crocin gives colour, picrocrocin the bitter taste, safranal the odour and aroma. Crocin hydrolyses to gentiobiose and crocetin; picrocrocin hydrolyses to glucose and safranal. [4]
Flavonoids Kaempferol glycosides (major flavonoids of the flower) Flower (tepals) [5]

Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy

Findings below come from the cited studies only. Several are small pilot trials or animal studies, so they do not by themselves establish clinical efficacy.

Antidepressant Activity

In a 6-week pilot double-blind randomized trial of 30 adult outpatients with mild to moderate major depression, saffron stigma 30 mg/day was found to be similar in effect to imipramine 100 mg/day. Anticholinergic effects (dry mouth) and sedation were more frequent with imipramine. The trial had no placebo arm, and the authors call for a larger placebo-controlled trial.[6]

Cognitive Function (Alzheimer's Disease)

In a 16-week double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 46 patients with probable mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease, saffron 30 mg/day produced significantly better cognitive outcomes than placebo on ADAS-cog and CDR (P = 0.04 for both). The authors describe it as short-term evidence and ask for larger confirmatory trials.[7]

Anti-inflammatory and Antinociceptive Activity

In mice, aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron stigma and petal showed antinociceptive activity in the acetic-acid writhing test but not in the hot-plate test; naloxone partially blocked only the stigma aqueous extract. Only stigma extracts had weak to moderate effects in acute (xylene ear-oedema) inflammation, while in chronic (formalin paw-oedema) inflammation both stigma extracts and the ethanolic petal extract were active.[8]

Antioxidant Activity

In 20 human subjects (10 healthy, 10 with coronary artery disease) given saffron 50 mg twice daily in milk, lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility fell significantly over 6 weeks (healthy 66.4 to 38.3; CAD 76.0 to 48.8; P < 0.001), indicating an antioxidant effect. The study did not report lipid-lowering or clinical cardiovascular outcomes.[9]

Antidiabetic Activity

In alloxan-diabetic rats given 6 weeks of daily oral treatment, saffron methanolic extract (80 and 240 mg/kg), crocin (50 and 150 mg/kg) and safranal (0.25 and 0.5 ml/kg) significantly reduced fasting blood glucose and HbA1c and raised blood insulin, without significant changes in SGOT, SGPT or creatinine.[10]

Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage

  • Human safety: The safety of saffron tablets has been evaluated in healthy volunteers.[11]
  • Precautions: Toxic-dose thresholds and pregnancy risk were not confirmed in the sources checked, so none are stated here. Use within classical dose limits under professional guidance.
  • Classical dose: 25–50 mg (see Dose above).

Summary of Therapeutic Profile

Evidence for Crocus sativus (see sections above for references)
Indication Evidence type Principal finding
Mild to moderate depression Human pilot RCT (n=30, 6 weeks) Similar to imipramine
Mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease Human RCT (n=46, 16 weeks) Better ADAS-cog and CDR than placebo
Pain and inflammation (Siroroga/Vrana) Mouse and rat models Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity, extract-dependent
Oxidative stress / coronary artery disease Human study (n=20, 6 weeks) Reduced lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility
Diabetes Alloxan-diabetic rats Lower glucose and HbA1c, higher insulin

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25
  2. ↑ Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74
  3. ↑ Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43
  4. ↑ Srivastava R, Ahmed H, Dixit RK, Dharamveer, Saraf SA. Crocus sativus L.: A comprehensive review. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(8):200–208.
  5. ↑ Moratalla-López N, Bagur MJ, Lorenzo C, et al. Bioactivity and bioavailability of the major metabolites of Crocus sativus L. flower. Molecules. 2019;24(15):2827. doi:10.3390/molecules24152827
  6. ↑ Akhondzadeh S, Fallah-Pour H, Afkham K, Jamshidi AH, Khalighi-Cigaroudi F. Comparison of Crocus sativus L. and imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial [ISRCTN45683816]. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2004;4:12. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-4-12
  7. ↑ Akhondzadeh S, Sabet MS, Harirchian MH, et al. Saffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2010;35(5):581–588. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01133.x
  8. ↑ Hosseinzadeh H, Younesi HM. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocus sativus L. stigma and petal extracts in mice. BMC Pharmacol. 2002;2:7. doi:10.1186/1471-2210-2-7
  9. ↑ Verma SK, Bordia A. Antioxidant property of saffron in man. Indian J Med Sci. 1998;52(5):205–207.
  10. ↑ Kianbakht S, Hajiaghaee R. Anti-hyperglycemic effects of saffron and its active constituents, crocin and safranal, in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Med Plants. 2011;10(39):82–89.
  11. ↑ Modaghegh MH, Shahabian M, Esmaeili HA, Rajbai O, Hosseinzadeh H. Safety evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus) tablets in healthy volunteers. Phytomedicine. 2008;15(12):1032–1037. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2008.06.003
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