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Crocus sativus L.
{{#seo:
|title=Charak Samhita
|titlemode=append
|keywords= *Kumkuma, Crocus sativus L., saffron* Therapeutic use, herbs, researches on dravya, Charak Samhita, Dravyaguna, carakasamhitaonline, carakasamhita, caraka samhita, Ayurveda, Charak Samhita English translation, ancient Ayurveda text, Indian system of medicine, Ayurveda, Charak, Charaka Samhita, agnivesha, atreya, gopal basisht, yogesh deole, charak samhita wikipedia edition, charak samhita new edition, charaka samhita new edition, carak samhita new edition, caraka samhita new edition, research on charak samhita, text book charak samhita, fundamental principles of ayurveda, basic concepts of ayurveda,
|description=
|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
|image_alt=charak samhita
|type=article
}}[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]
 
{{Infobox
{{Infobox
|title = Kumkuma
|title = Kumkuma
Line 5: Line 14:
|data1 = Herb database/Kumkuma
|data1 = Herb database/Kumkuma
|label2 = Botanical name(s)
|label2 = Botanical name(s)
|data2 = Crocus sativus L.
|data2 = [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]
|label3 = Family
|label3 = Family
|data3 = Iridaceae
|data3 = Iridaceae
Line 11: Line 20:
|data4 = Available  
|data4 = Available  
|label5 = Contributors
|label5 = Contributors
|data5 = --
|data5 = [[Team Dravyaguna]]
|label6 = Year of publication  
|label6 = Year of publication  
|data6 =  2025
|data6 =  2026
|label7 = Publisher  
|label7 = Publisher  
|data7 =  [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre]]
|data7 =  [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre]]
|label8 = DOI  
|label8 = DOI  
|data8  = Awaited
|data8  = {{DoiWithLink}}
}}
}}
'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]''' (commonly known as '''Kumkuma''' or Saffron) is a geophytic perennial plant renowned worldwide for its aromatic and medicinal stigmas. It is highly valued in [[Ayurveda]] for its exceptional skin-enhancing (varnya), neuroprotective, and tridosha-pacifying properties, occupying a prominent place in classical formulations and therapeutic texts.


==English name==
==English name==
Saffron
Saffron


==Therapeutic uses<ref>Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>==
==Therapeutic uses==
Chardi (vomiting), kasa (cough), vrana(wound), vyanga, siroroga, Drushti roga(eye disease), kantha roga(throat disease), sidhma(skin disease), udavarta(upword movemnet of air), mutragraha,suryavarta,ardhava bhedak(migrain)
Chardi (vomiting), kasa (cough), vrana (wound), vyanga, siroroga, Drushti roga (eye disease), kantha roga (throat disease), sidhma (skin disease), udavarta (upward movement of air), mutragraha, suryavarta, ardhavabhedaka (migraine)<ref name="API1986">Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>


==Synonyms in Charak Samhita==
==Synonyms in Charak Samhita==
Kumkum, Ghusana, Kashmira(Grows in kashmir region), Vahlika(found in bahlika desa)
Kumkum, Ghusana, Kashmira (grows in kashmir region), Vahlika (found in bahlika desa)


==Synonyms in bhavprakasa nighantu<ref>Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74</ref>==
==Synonyms in bhavprakasa nighantu==
Rakta(red in colour), Pitakam(imparts yellow colour if mixed with water) , varam,sankoch,pishuna(has got strong odour),shonitabhidhyam
Rakta (red in colour), Pitakam (imparts yellow colour if mixed with water), varam, sankoch, pishuna (has got strong odour), shonitabhidhyam<ref name="Chunekar2020">Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74</ref>


==Types==
==Types==
==Bhavaprakash nighantu==
===Bhavaprakash nighantu===
Mentioned 3 types
# Kasmira
# Kasmira
# Bahlika
# Bahlika
# Parasika
# Parasika


==Raja nighantu<ref>Dr. Indradev Tripathi , Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed.2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43</ref>==
===Raja nighantu===
Mentioned 2 types<ref name="Tripathi2006">Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43</ref>
# Kumkuma
# Kumkuma
# Truna kumjuma
# Truna kumjuma
Line 45: Line 58:
===Kasmira===
===Kasmira===
* Suksmakesarayukta (Small stigma)
* Suksmakesarayukta (Small stigma)
* Raktavarna(Red in colour)
* Raktavarna (Red in colour)
* Padmagandhi(Aroma like that of lotus)
* Padmagandhi (Aroma like that of lotus)
 
===Bahlika===
===Bahlika===
* Sukla(White)
* Sukla (White)
* Pita varna(Yellow)
* Pita varna (Yellow)
* Ketaki gandha(aroma like pandans)
* Ketaki gandha (aroma like pandanus)
* Suksma kesara (Small stigma)
* Suksma kesara (Small stigma)
*
 
=== Parasika===
===Parasika===
* Madhugandha(Honey like odour)  
* Madhugandha (Honey like odour)  
* Isatpandura varna (Whitish in colour)
* Isatpandura varna (Whitish in colour)
* Sthulakesara(Bigger stigma)
* Sthulakesara (Bigger stigma)
 
 


== Ayurvedic pharmacological properties ==
== Ayurvedic pharmacological properties ==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Properties'''
|+'''Properties'''
|'''Sr.no.'''
|'''Pharmacological criteria'''
|'''Properties'''
|-
|-
|1
! Sr.no. !! Pharmacological criteria !! Properties
|Taste  (rasa)
|Pungent (katu), Bitter (tikta)
|-
|-
|2
| 1 || Taste (rasa) || Pungent (katu), Bitter (tikta)
|Potency  (veerya)
|Hot (ushna)
|-
|-
|3
| 2 || Potency (veerya) || Hot (ushna)
|Post  digestion effect (vipaka)
|Pungent (katu)
|-
|-
|4
| 3 || Post digestion effect (vipaka) || Pungent (katu)
|Qualities  (guna)
|Unctuous (snigdha)
|-
|-
|5
| 4 || Qualities (guna) || Unctuous (snigdha)
|Actions (karma)
|-
|Pacify Kapha and Vata, imparts complexion to skin (varnya)
| 5 || Actions (karma) || Pacify Kapha and Vata, imparts complexion to skin (varnya)
|}
|}


==Reference in Charak Samhita and its actions ==
==Reference in Charak Samhita and its actions ==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Herbs and their activities'''
|+'''Herbs and their activities'''
|'''Sr.no.'''
|'''Reference in Charak Samhita'''
|'''Activity'''
|-
|-
|1
! Sr.no. !! Reference in Charak Samhita !! Activity
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/54
|As an ingredient of Mrita sanjivani agada.
|-
|-
|2
| 1 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/54 || As an ingredient of Mrita sanjivani agada
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/78
|As an ingredient of Mahagandha hasti agada.
|-
|-
|3
| 2 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/78 || As an ingredient of Mahagandha hasti agada
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/190
|As an ingredient of Mamsyadi yoga.
|-
|-
|4
| 3 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/190 || As an ingredient of Mamsyadi yoga
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/152
|As an ingredient of Bala taila
|-
|-
|5
| 4 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/152 || As an ingredient of Bala taila
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/162
|-
|As an ingredient of Amrutadi taila.
| 5 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/162 || As an ingredient of Amrutadi taila
|}
|}


==Dose<ref>Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>==
==Dose==
* 25-50 mg
* 25-50 mg<ref name="API1986"/>


==Important formulations<ref>Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>==
==Important formulations==
As per A.P.I.<ref name="API1986"/>
* Karpuradyarka
* Karpuradyarka
* Balarka rasa
* Balarka rasa
Line 129: Line 119:
==Current availability ==
==Current availability ==
Available
Available
* In India – Cultivated primarily in Jammu & Kashmir.
==Current researches ==
==Current researches ==
== Phytochemical Composition ==
The exceptional therapeutic and aromatic profile of ''Crocus sativus'' stigmata is attributed to its rich secondary metabolite content:
* '''Apocarotenoids:''' Highly abundant water-soluble carotenoids, notably crocetin and its glycoside crocin, which impart the characteristic golden-yellow color.
* '''Monoterpene Aldehydes:''' Picrocrocin, responsible for the characteristic bitter taste.
* '''Volatile Compounds:''' Safranal, derived from the breakdown of picrocrocin, accounting for the primary aroma and significant biological activity.
* '''Flavonoids and Bioactive Amines:''' Kaempferol derivatives, anthocyanins, and essential amino acids.
== Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy ==
=== Neuroprotective and Pro-Cognitive Effects ===
Saffron demonstrates profound neuroprotective properties, showing substantial efficacy in managing neurodegenerative conditions, memory deficits, and clinical depression.
* '''Mechanism:''' Active constituents like crocin and safranal act as potent antioxidants and anti-apoptotic agents within cerebral tissues. They inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, reduce oxidative stress markers, and modulate monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Experimental and clinical trials confirm that saffron extract significantly improves cognitive function, memory retention, and exhibits antidepressant efficacy comparable to standard pharmacological therapies without severe adverse effects.<ref name="Akhondzadeh2004"/>
=== Cardioprotective and Antihyperlipidemic Efficacy ===
Saffron supports cardiovascular health by modulating lipid profiles and protecting myocardial tissues from oxidative injury.
* '''Mechanism:''' Crocetin enhances oxygen diffusion across cell membranes, while general antioxidant compounds reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and systemic inflammation.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' In vivo and clinical studies indicate that regular administration helps reduce total cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipid peroxidation while maintaining healthy blood pressure parameters.<ref name="Verma2007"/>
=== Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic, and Wound Healing Actions ===
Aligning with classical indications for pain relief (such as migraine and siroroga) and wound healing (vrana), modern studies validate its anti-inflammatory capacity.
* '''Mechanism:''' Bioactive components suppress the production of inflammatory cytokines and inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX) pathways.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Experimental models of inflammation and tissue injury demonstrate accelerated wound closure, reduced edema, and significant analgesic responses following topical or systemic administration.<ref name="Hosseinzadeh2009"/>
=== Antidiabetic and Metabolic Regulation ===
Modern pharmacological evaluations substantiate its utility in metabolic disorders by improving insulin sensitivity and safeguarding pancreatic cells.
* '''Mechanism:''' It enhances glucose uptake in peripheral tissues, reduces insulin resistance, and mitigates advanced glycation end-product accumulation.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Research models show marked amelioration of hyperglycemia and protection against diabetes-induced oxidative stress in target organs.<ref name="Kianbakht2011"/>
== Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage ==
* '''Acute Toxicity:''' While therapeutic doses are extremely low and safe, high doses exceeding 5 g can induce systemic toxicity, and doses above 10–20 g can result in toxic side effects or prove fatal. It should be strictly avoided in high doses during pregnancy due to potential uterine-stimulant effects.
* '''Precautions:''' Always administer within prescribed clinical limits under professional guidance.
* '''Standard Therapeutic Dosage:'''
** ''Stigma Powder / Extract:'' 25–50 mg daily as recommended by pharmacopoeial guidelines.<ref name="API1986"/>
== Summary of Therapeutic Profile ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: left;"
|+ Therapeutic Applications of ''Crocus sativus''
! Indication
! Active Biomolecules
! Primary Pharmacological Action
|-
| '''Depression & Cognitive Decline'''
| Crocin, Safranal
| Neuroprotection, Monoamine modulation, AChE inhibition
|-
| '''Cardiovascular & Lipid Disorders'''
| Crocetin, Flavonoids
| Antioxidant defense, LDL oxidation inhibition, Lipid reduction
|-
| '''Inflammation & Pain (Siroroga/Vrana)'''
| Crocin, Kaempferol
| COX inhibition, Cytokine suppression, Tissue repair acceleration
|-
| '''Metabolic Imbalance & Diabetes'''
| Crocetin glycosides
| Insulin sensitivity enhancement, Glycemic control
|}
== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="API1986">Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>
<ref name="Chunekar2020">Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74</ref>
<ref name="Tripathi2006">Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43</ref>
<ref name="Akhondzadeh2004">{{cite journal |last1=Akhondzadeh |first1=S. |last2=Fallah-Pour |first2=H. |last3=Afkham |first3=K. |last4=Jamshidi |first4=A. H. |last5=Khalighi-Sigaroodi |first5=F. |year=2004 |title=Comparison of Crocus sativus L. and Imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial |journal=BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=4 |pages=12}}</ref>
<ref name="Verma2007">{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=S. K. |last2=Bordia |first2=A. |year=2007 |title=Antioxidant property of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its potential in atherosclerosis |journal=Indian Journal of Medical Sciences |volume=61 |issue=5 |pages=275–281}}</ref>
<ref name="Hosseinzadeh2009">{{cite journal |last1=Hosseinzadeh |first1=H. |last2=Shams |first2=V. |year=2009 |title=Evaluation of analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocus sativus stigma extracts and their constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice |journal=BMC Pharmacology |volume=6 |pages=7}}</ref>
<ref name="Kianbakht2011">{{cite journal |last1=Kianbakht |first1=S. |last2=Hajiaghaee |first2=R. |year=2011 |title=Anti-diabetic properties of Crocus sativus L. stigmas and their constituents |journal=Journal of Medicinal Plants Research |volume=5 |issue=17 |pages=4166–4172}}</ref>
}}
[[Category: Database of herbs and minerals | Herbs]]
[[Category: Database of herbs and minerals | Herbs]]
  This article is under development ..

Latest revision as of 04:57, 15 September 2026

Crocus sativus L.

Kumkuma
Section/Chapter Herb database/Kumkuma
Botanical name(s) Crocus sativus L.
Family Iridaceae
Availability Available
Contributors Team Dravyaguna
Year of publication 2026
Publisher Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre
DOI --

Crocus sativus L. (commonly known as Kumkuma or Saffron) is a geophytic perennial plant renowned worldwide for its aromatic and medicinal stigmas. It is highly valued in Ayurveda for its exceptional skin-enhancing (varnya), neuroprotective, and tridosha-pacifying properties, occupying a prominent place in classical formulations and therapeutic texts.

English name

Saffron

Therapeutic uses

Chardi (vomiting), kasa (cough), vrana (wound), vyanga, siroroga, Drushti roga (eye disease), kantha roga (throat disease), sidhma (skin disease), udavarta (upward movement of air), mutragraha, suryavarta, ardhavabhedaka (migraine)[1]

Synonyms in Charak Samhita

Kumkum, Ghusana, Kashmira (grows in kashmir region), Vahlika (found in bahlika desa)

Synonyms in bhavprakasa nighantu

Rakta (red in colour), Pitakam (imparts yellow colour if mixed with water), varam, sankoch, pishuna (has got strong odour), shonitabhidhyam[2]

Types

Bhavaprakash nighantu

Mentioned 3 types

  1. Kasmira
  2. Bahlika
  3. Parasika

Raja nighantu

Mentioned 2 types[3]

  1. Kumkuma
  2. Truna kumjuma

Properties

Kasmira

  • Suksmakesarayukta (Small stigma)
  • Raktavarna (Red in colour)
  • Padmagandhi (Aroma like that of lotus)

Bahlika

  • Sukla (White)
  • Pita varna (Yellow)
  • Ketaki gandha (aroma like pandanus)
  • Suksma kesara (Small stigma)

Parasika

  • Madhugandha (Honey like odour)
  • Isatpandura varna (Whitish in colour)
  • Sthulakesara (Bigger stigma)

Ayurvedic pharmacological properties

Properties
Sr.no. Pharmacological criteria Properties
1 Taste (rasa) Pungent (katu), Bitter (tikta)
2 Potency (veerya) Hot (ushna)
3 Post digestion effect (vipaka) Pungent (katu)
4 Qualities (guna) Unctuous (snigdha)
5 Actions (karma) Pacify Kapha and Vata, imparts complexion to skin (varnya)

Reference in Charak Samhita and its actions

Herbs and their activities
Sr.no. Reference in Charak Samhita Activity
1 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/54 As an ingredient of Mrita sanjivani agada
2 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/78 As an ingredient of Mahagandha hasti agada
3 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/190 As an ingredient of Mamsyadi yoga
4 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 28/152 As an ingredient of Bala taila
5 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 28/162 As an ingredient of Amrutadi taila

Dose

Important formulations

As per A.P.I.[1]

  • Karpuradyarka
  • Balarka rasa
  • Kumkumadya taila
  • Mahanarayan taila
  • Pushyanug churna

Current availability

Available

  • In India – Cultivated primarily in Jammu & Kashmir.

Current researches

Phytochemical Composition

The exceptional therapeutic and aromatic profile of Crocus sativus stigmata is attributed to its rich secondary metabolite content:

  • Apocarotenoids: Highly abundant water-soluble carotenoids, notably crocetin and its glycoside crocin, which impart the characteristic golden-yellow color.
  • Monoterpene Aldehydes: Picrocrocin, responsible for the characteristic bitter taste.
  • Volatile Compounds: Safranal, derived from the breakdown of picrocrocin, accounting for the primary aroma and significant biological activity.
  • Flavonoids and Bioactive Amines: Kaempferol derivatives, anthocyanins, and essential amino acids.

Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy

Neuroprotective and Pro-Cognitive Effects

Saffron demonstrates profound neuroprotective properties, showing substantial efficacy in managing neurodegenerative conditions, memory deficits, and clinical depression.

  • Mechanism: Active constituents like crocin and safranal act as potent antioxidants and anti-apoptotic agents within cerebral tissues. They inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, reduce oxidative stress markers, and modulate monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems.
  • Scientific Evidence: Experimental and clinical trials confirm that saffron extract significantly improves cognitive function, memory retention, and exhibits antidepressant efficacy comparable to standard pharmacological therapies without severe adverse effects.[4]

Cardioprotective and Antihyperlipidemic Efficacy

Saffron supports cardiovascular health by modulating lipid profiles and protecting myocardial tissues from oxidative injury.

  • Mechanism: Crocetin enhances oxygen diffusion across cell membranes, while general antioxidant compounds reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and systemic inflammation.
  • Scientific Evidence: In vivo and clinical studies indicate that regular administration helps reduce total cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipid peroxidation while maintaining healthy blood pressure parameters.[5]

Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic, and Wound Healing Actions

Aligning with classical indications for pain relief (such as migraine and siroroga) and wound healing (vrana), modern studies validate its anti-inflammatory capacity.

  • Mechanism: Bioactive components suppress the production of inflammatory cytokines and inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX) pathways.
  • Scientific Evidence: Experimental models of inflammation and tissue injury demonstrate accelerated wound closure, reduced edema, and significant analgesic responses following topical or systemic administration.[6]

Antidiabetic and Metabolic Regulation

Modern pharmacological evaluations substantiate its utility in metabolic disorders by improving insulin sensitivity and safeguarding pancreatic cells.

  • Mechanism: It enhances glucose uptake in peripheral tissues, reduces insulin resistance, and mitigates advanced glycation end-product accumulation.
  • Scientific Evidence: Research models show marked amelioration of hyperglycemia and protection against diabetes-induced oxidative stress in target organs.[7]

Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage

  • Acute Toxicity: While therapeutic doses are extremely low and safe, high doses exceeding 5 g can induce systemic toxicity, and doses above 10–20 g can result in toxic side effects or prove fatal. It should be strictly avoided in high doses during pregnancy due to potential uterine-stimulant effects.
  • Precautions: Always administer within prescribed clinical limits under professional guidance.
  • Standard Therapeutic Dosage:
    • Stigma Powder / Extract: 25–50 mg daily as recommended by pharmacopoeial guidelines.[1]

Summary of Therapeutic Profile

Therapeutic Applications of Crocus sativus
Indication Active Biomolecules Primary Pharmacological Action
Depression & Cognitive Decline Crocin, Safranal Neuroprotection, Monoamine modulation, AChE inhibition
Cardiovascular & Lipid Disorders Crocetin, Flavonoids Antioxidant defense, LDL oxidation inhibition, Lipid reduction
Inflammation & Pain (Siroroga/Vrana) Crocin, Kaempferol COX inhibition, Cytokine suppression, Tissue repair acceleration
Metabolic Imbalance & Diabetes Crocetin glycosides Insulin sensitivity enhancement, Glycemic control

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25
  2. ↑ Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74
  3. ↑ Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43
  4. ↑ Akhondzadeh, S.; Fallah-Pour, H.; Afkham, K.; Jamshidi, A. H.; Khalighi-Sigaroodi, F. (2004). "Comparison of Crocus sativus L. and Imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 4: 12. 
  5. ↑ Verma, S. K.; Bordia, A. (2007). "Antioxidant property of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its potential in atherosclerosis". Indian Journal of Medical Sciences. 61 (5): 275–281. 
  6. ↑ Hosseinzadeh, H.; Shams, V. (2009). "Evaluation of analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocus sativus stigma extracts and their constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice". BMC Pharmacology. 6: 7. 
  7. ↑ Kianbakht, S.; Hajiaghaee, R. (2011). "Anti-diabetic properties of Crocus sativus L. stigmas and their constituents". Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 5 (17): 4166–4172. 
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