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Line 135: − At first, Prajapati [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajapati]] received Ayurveda in its entirety as recited by Brahma[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma]], from whom the Ashwins (received), and from Ashwins lord Indra received it fully. That is why Bharadwaja , as beseeched by the sages, came to Indra.[4-5]+ Line 309:
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Line 1,468: − + − + − ''Pratyakpushpa'' is used for ''nasya karma''. The remaining 10 drugs are useful for ''virechana karma''. Thus the names and main actions of 19 fruiters have been described [81-85.5].+ + Line 1,502:
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Line 2,487: − + − + − − </div>+ − − + + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − ''Atma'' along with the subtle ''indriyas'' and ''mana'' when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, ''ayu''(life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilization of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per [[Ayurveda]], it can be understood that ''atma'' has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and ''atma'' which enters in it with ''indriya'' and ''mana'', continues till death. At the time of death, ''atma'' along with ''indriya'' and ''mana'' leaves the body. When ''atma'' realises that it is distinct from the body, ''indriya'' and ''mana'', it gets ''moksha'' (emancipation).+ − + − ''Ayu'' is described with various synonyms. Each one of them is significant and they provide understanding about different aspects about ''Ayu''. Its synonym, ''dhari'' (the support), indicates that as long as the conjugation of these four factors continues, the living body is protected. Any threat to the existence is counteracted by protective mechanisms like the healing of wounds. As soon as there is a disjunction of these factors, death occurs and the decomposition of body starts. ''Jeevitam'' (animation) suggests that only as long as the conjugation of these factors continues, there is liveliness, responsive and sentient nature. This is lost as soon as there is disjunction. ''Nityaga'' (the flux) suggests that this conjugation of four factors is a dynamic process, a continuum. The living body keeps on undergoing changes, at every moment. ''Anubandha'' (the link) suggests that this conjugation is continued as a link every moment. It also forms a link at its beginning point with the previous life, and at the end point, with the next life.+ − + − + − ''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' are pertaining to [[dravya]], ''guna'' and ''karma''. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through ''indriya'' (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the ''buddhi'' (intelligence), which is an attribute of the ''atma'' (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as ''jnanotpatti'' (manifestation of knowledge). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is refered in the verse 45 as ''ekatva'' (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called ''samanya'' which helps us to understand similarity (''samanyam ekatvakaram''). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle ''vishesha'' due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (''prithaktvakrita''). This is the brief essence of the principle of ''Samanya-vishesha''. This concept is also found in ''vaisheshika darshana'' (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but [[Ayurveda]] has applied this concept in practice.+ − * Continuous use of [[dravya]], ''guna'' or ''karma'' which are similar to the body constituents, results in the increase of them. Whereas, continuous use of dissimilar ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', result in the decrease of them/ e.g. eating the meat of animals causes an increase in the content of muscle tissue in the human body (''dravya samanya''). But not only this, eating of other food articles like ''masha'' (black gram) also results in an increase of muscle tissue. This happens because of the properties present in ''masha'' like ''guru'', ''picchila'', ''sthira'' etc. are similar to that of muscle tissue, although muscle tissue and black gram are different materials (''guna samanya''). Also, activities like rest and proper sleep induce similar properties like sthira, guru etc. which help in increase in muscle tissue (''Karma samanya''). + − * These effects on the body of ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' having ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'' can be exerted only when they are applied directly to the body (''pravrittih ubhayasya''). Also when we use any ''dravya, guna'' or ''karma, samanya'' and ''vishesha'' both come to action, with respect to different body constituents. E.g. ''Maricha'' (black pepper) decreases ''kapha'' and ''vata'', but at the same time increases ''pitta''. While using food or medicines, we must understand that it will be favorable to certain body constituents, but at the same time it will be unfavorable to other constituents (''ubhayasya pravrittih''). The effects are like double edged sword. By keeping this in mind one should make appropriate use of food or medicines.+ + + − '''Contemporary view'''+ − + − + − + − + − + − * ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions)- ''Guna'' in [[Ayurveda]] are not studied in terms of physical or chemical properties of various objects, but in terms of their effects on the living body. E.g. a food article or a drug is called as ''guru''(heavy) not as per its mass or weight. But by its property to augment body tissues. ''Ruksha'' (dry) is that which dessicates. + − + − + − * ''Samavaya'' (Inseparable concomitance)- ''Samavaya'' is the inherent inseparable concomitance of ''prithvi'' etc. (''dravya)'' with their ''guṇas'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions). This relationship is inseparable, because [[dravya]] and ''guna-karma'' evolve together. If a [[dravya]] is destroyed, ''guna-karma'' cannot exist and vice a versa. ''Dravya, guna-karma'' evolve and get destroyed, and are replaced by newer ones, but their relationship never changes. Whenever a [[dravya]] exists, it is never devoid of ''guna-karma''. In this sense, it is said that ''samavaya'' is eternal. Out of the six categories of existants, ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' actually exist. But if their mutual relationship is not there, none of them can exist. Therefore, ''samavaya'' is the base of existance for everything. [ verse 50] + − === Mahabhuta and dosha:=== + − The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three [[dosha]]. [[Ayurveda]] studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three [[dosha]]. This system of three [[dosha]], is very important practically for each [[physician]]. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successful treatment. While a [[physician]] having in-depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three [[dosha]] i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand [[Ayurveda]].+ − + − Every [[dravya]] in the present universe is composed of specific mode of conjugation of all five ''mahabhutas''. ''Rasa'' (taste) is a specialized property of ''apa mahabhuta''. When ''apa mahabhuta'' is in ''tanmatra'' (purest unconjugated form) state, it does not possess taste. When it comes in contact with ''prithvi'', the taste is formed. The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to a combination of other three [[Mahabhuta]] like ''akasha, vayu'' and ''tejas''. [verse 64] + − Although the term ''rasa'' apparently refers to six tastes like sweet, sour etc., but here the effects of the drugs with those tastes on the living body are given more importance. E.g. by saying that a particular drug is having ''madhura rasa'', it is expected that not only that the drug will have sweet taste, but more than that it will have specific effects like nourishing body tissues, wholesome for hair etc. Any drug having such effects on the body is said to possess ''madhura rasa''.+ − + + + + + + + + + Line 2,544:
Line 2,569: − ''Rasa, guna, veerya'' and ''vipaka'' are important properties present in a [[dravya]]. They can be identified by specific methods. But due to specific arrangements of ''mahabhutas'', which causes specific transformations, a [[dravya]] is possessing unique property termed as ''prabhava''. ''Mahabhutas'' being very subtle and unobservable with our senses, their conjugations or transformations can’t be readily understood. So ''prabhava'' is unexplicable. But it is understood based on the effects produced by it. Drugs can be classified on various parameters, based on ''prabhava'' also various classifications are possible. Here a gross classification based on three most important effects of ''prabhava'' is mentioned.+ − * '''Dosha prashamana (dosha pacifying):''' + − ''Dosha prashamana'' are the drugs which bring back the equilibrium of [[dosha]]. ''Amalaki'' and ''durlabha'' pacify all the three [[dosha]] as well as correct the function of ''dhatu''. ''Amalaki'' pacifies ''vata'' due to ''madhura -amla'' ''rasa'' and ''madhura vipaka'', ''pitta'' due to ''madhura-tikta-kashaya'' , ''rasa'' and ''sheeta veerya'', ''kapha'' due to ''katu''-''tikta –kashaya rasa'' and ''guna'' like ''ruksha, laghu''. This explanation of the mode of action of ''amalaki'' on three doshas is true. But question arises why with the same set of properties, different actions are not possible like vitiation of kapha with ''madhura-amla rasa'', ''madhura vipaka'' and ''sheeta veerya''. So there must be some other factor also influencing the actions. This factor is ''prabhava''. The drugs with ''doshaprashamana prabhava'' always only pacify the [[dosha]] and never vitiate them, whereas the drugs with ''dhatu pradushana prabhava'' always vitiate, never pacify.+ − * '''Dhatu pradushana (vitiating dhatu):''' There are some substances which by their very nature harm the body e.g. ''mandaka dadhi'' (immature curd/yogurt), slow and acute poisons etc.+ − * '''Swasthavrittahita (maintaining health):''' The substances which help in maintaining, promotion and preservation of the health of the healthy persons are ''swasthavratta hitakara''. ''Rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'' as well as daily and seasonal regimens etc. are belonging to this group. Red rice, old rice, wheat, barley, green gram etc are good for daily use to maintain and promote health. The primary function of the substances under this category is to maintain the equilibrium of the [[dosha]] so that they are neither increased/aggravated nor decreased. Thus they help normal functioning of the body. [verse 67]+ − * Use of herbal medicines: + − + − * Use of minerals: + − ''Samalah'' indicates byproducts such as bitumen. Salt, minerals and alkaline products obtained from earth are also included in this group. Minerals and metals obtained from earth are first subjected to purification and then converting to nano particles (''bhasma'') by the various methods described separately for each product. The metals are subjected to anaerobic incinerating processes to convert it into ''bhasma'' which is nano form of the metal. Thus the earth-products becomes free from side effects of the gross metal and very potent and cures many diseases when administered with specific decoctions. It also reduces the bulk of doses of the herbal substances when mixed with these ''bhasma''. (Verse 70).+ − *Plant origin drugs are classified in four groups viz. ''vanaspati'' (direct fruiters), ''virudha'' (creepers), ''vanaspatya'' (flower-based fruiters) and ''aushadhi'' (herbs). + + + + + + + − + − + − + − * Ghee is the most important unctuous substance among various types of unctuous substances, because it possesses an unique quality of absorbing the properties of processed drugs without losing its own properties. Therefore ghee is the best media for processing drugs. (87-88).+ − * ''Saindhva'' (rock salt) is very useful among all salts, but here ''sauvarchala'' (sochal salt) is listed first because of its most palatable taste. Otherwise sochal salt comes only after ''saindhava'' in order of priority (89-92).+ − * Urine from the female species of various animals have generally been advised for therapeutic purposes because they are considered light. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 27/238] Some commentators ascribe heaviness to males with ''shukra'' and lightness of urine due to dissociation of female with ''shukra'' but it is not acceptable as females are not completely devoid of ''shukra dhatu.'' So in a nutshell, urine of female animals serves as efficacious in treating the many diseases. Next in order comes urine of male species. The urine of an impotent animal is considered inauspicious and thus not mentioned (93-105).+ − * Sweetness, nourishment, unctuousness, and coolness are the general properties of the milk, but milk of some animals may differ in this regard. For instance, milk of she-camel is slightly saline in taste while she-goat is astringent. Similarly, milk of a she-camel also differs in properties as it is rough and hot. Hence the specific properties mentioned of the individual milk should also be considered in this regard. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 27/217-224] Milk is beneficial for mental faculties due to its specific action and also due to its general nourishing property which includes the proper growth of the mental faculties also and not the mind itself which is eternal. + − * Milk is beneficial for certain states or conditions of ''raktapitta'' (bleeding disorders) as it is mentioned that even if after administration of the various decoctions, stimulation of digestive power and pacification of ''kapha''. ''Raktapitta'' not cured indicates ''vata'' predominance and in such conditions the milk of a she-goat or of a cow, boiled with five times its volume of water is advised. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 4/82-83] Thus, it is not correct to say that milk is harmful for ''adhoga'' and ''urdhvaga raktapitta'' due to laxative and ''kapha'' vitiating properties respectively. Milk is, of course, useful in ''raktapitta'' only at a certain stage (105-113).+ − * ''Krishnagandha'' is included in the list of ''shodhana'' drugs though it has no elimination action. It seems this drug is included in the list owing to its external purification action and application as paste (116-119).+ − * Local people such as goat-herders, sheep-herders, cow-herder and other forest dwellers are generally well versed with identification of the local herbs. Therefore, the beginner may take their help of these people for identification of the plants available in their areas. However, mere knowing the name and form of the plant is not sufficient and one must know their pharmacological properties, therapeutic actions and underlying principle of its application. Hence the best [[physician]] is the one who is well acquainted with drugs in their entirely (120-123).+ − * To become a successful [[physician]], it is very necessary to acquaint with identification of the drug material as well as to know detail pharmacological and therapeutic properties and actions of the drug. + − * [[physician]] should use only those drugs which are well known from every aspect (pharmacological effect). The unknown drug may act as poison and kill the patient. Therefore, if a [[physician]] knows all the three aspects viz., names, forms and properties of drugs can treat the patients successfully. Hence the patient should not take medicine from pseudo-[[physician]]s and similarly a [[physician]] should not prescribe a drug which is not well known (124-133). + − * Correct drug and knowledgeable [[physician]]s are the two important pillars of successful treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to know the qualities of correct medicine and a good [[physician]]. The drugs having all the requisite properties and actions required for cure a particular disease is considered as the proper drug. For a good [[physician]], it is necessary to have all the knowledge of the principles underlying the correct application of medicines. Sometimes a randomly prescribed medicine by a pseudo [[physician]] also succeeds in alleviating disease and in that case the credit is not his but it is just accidental. Thus, only that [[physician]] is best who has proficiency in the principle governing the use of a drug, knows all the aspects of the medicine to select and thus has the capability of curing the diseases (134).+ − * [[Ayurveda]] has a very scientific principle of ''karya-karana vada'' which says every action (''karya'') has its specific cause (''karana''). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the [[physician]] is proficient in [[Ayurveda]] and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in ''Khuddaka chatushpada''. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] l0/ 6] (135)+ − * All over the world, plants are recognized by their scientific names (in Latin, mostly), and hence generally accepted Latin names of plants mentioned in this chapter are given here to facilitate their wide understanding.+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya (view source)
Revision as of 10:28, 22 October 2021
, 10:28, 22 October 2021→Properties of dosha
|title=Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya
|title=Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya
|titlemode=append
|titlemode=append
|keywords=Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], ''Samanya'' (similarity), Vishesha''(dissimilarity), ''Guna'', ''Karma'', ''Rasa'', ''Dosha'', ''Vata'', ''Pitta'', ''Kapha'', ''Rajas'', ''Tamas'', ''Sattva'', qualities of good and bad [[physician]]s, charak samhita Ayurveda, Indian system of medicine,[[dravya]], [[panchamahabhuta]]
|keywords=Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], ''Samanya'' (similarity), Vishesha''(dissimilarity), ''Guna'', ''Karma'', ''Rasa'', ''Dosha'', ''Vata'', ''Pitta'', ''Kapha'', ''Rajas'', ''Tamas'', ''Sattva'', qualities of good and bad [[physician]]s, charak samhita Ayurveda, Indian system of medicine,[[dravya]], [[panchamahabhuta]] fundamental principles of Ayurveda, long life, improving lifespan
|description=The first chapter within Bheshaja Chatushka (tetrad constituting four chapters on medicinal treatment) deals with fundamental concepts of [[Ayurveda]] related to longevity
|description=The first chapter within Bheshaja Chatushka (tetrad constituting four chapters on medicinal treatment) deals with fundamental concepts of [[Ayurveda]] related to longevity
|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
|image_alt=carak samhita
|image_alt=carak samhita
|image_width=400
|image_width=400
'''Abstract'''
'''Abstract'''
<div style="text-align:justify;">
The title of [[Charak Samhita]]’s the very first chapter, [[Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya]], literally means the chapter on longevity. This is symbolic, because it implies that [[Ayurveda]] is not merely the science of life, but also a science of longevity. This chapter deliberates on the purpose of long [[life]] and [[health]] as the means of achieving the four primary instincts of human beings (purushartha chatustaya). These are virtue (dharma), wealth (artha), gratification (kama) and emancipation(moksha). Some of the basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and its scope are explained. The chapter introduces fundamental principles of [[Ayurveda]], including its definition, objective, concept of three [[sharira]](bodily) [[dosha]] and their qualities, and two [[manasa]] (mental) [[dosha]] and their treatment. The theory of similarity ([[samanya]]) and dissimilarity ([[vishesha]]), pharmaco-therapeutic aspects, classification of drugs, list of herbs and other animal products useful in purification and pacification therapies are highlighted. Through these deliberations, this chapter essentially lays the foundation for building the body of knowledge on life sciences and healthcare that [[Charak Samhita]] is known for.
The title of [[Charak Samhita]]’s the very first chapter, [[Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya]], literally means the chapter on longevity. This is symbolic, because it implies that [[Ayurveda]] is not merely the science of life, but also a science of longevity. This chapter deliberates on the purpose of long [[life]] and [[health]] as the means of achieving the four primary instincts of human beings (purushartha chatustaya). These are virtue (dharma), wealth (artha), gratification (kama) and emancipation (moksha). Some of the basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and its scope are explained. The chapter introduces fundamental principles of [[Ayurveda]], including its definition, objective, concept of three [[sharira]](bodily) [[dosha]] and their qualities, and two [[manasa]] (mental) [[dosha]] and their treatment. The theory of similarity ([[samanya]]) and dissimilarity ([[vishesha]]), pharmaco-therapeutic aspects, classification of drugs, list of herbs and other animal products useful in purification and pacification therapies are highlighted. Through these deliberations, this chapter essentially lays the foundation for building the body of knowledge on life sciences and healthcare that [[Charak Samhita]] is known for.
'''Keywords''': Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], [[Samanya]](similarity), [[Vishesha]](dissimilarity), [[dravya]], [[panchamahabhuta]], [[Guna]], [[Karma]], [[Rasa]], [[Dosha]], [[Vata]], [[Pitta]], [[Kapha]], [[Rajas]], [[Tamas]], [[Sattva]], qualities of good and bad [[physician]]s, medical ethics.
'''Keywords''': Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], [[Samanya]](similarity), [[Vishesha]](dissimilarity), [[dravya]], [[panchamahabhuta]], [[Guna]], [[Karma]], [[Rasa]], [[Dosha]], [[Vata]], [[Pitta]], [[Kapha]], [[Rajas]], [[Tamas]], [[Sattva]], qualities of good and bad [[physician]]s, medical ethics.
The [[Charak Samhita]] begins with a chapter detailing the means to attaining a long, healthy and happy life, explaining certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and the consequent foundational concepts necessary to build a body of knowledge. This chapter provides a description of the origin, definition, and scope of [[Ayurveda]]. It further deliberates on the critical concepts of [[Ayu]] (or the life-span of a human being) and its qualitative dimensions, and [[arogya]] (or [[health]]) as a means of achieving the four fundamental instincts (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) of life on this earth.
The [[Charak Samhita]] begins with a chapter detailing the means to attaining a long, healthy and happy life, explaining certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and the consequent foundational concepts necessary to build a body of knowledge. This chapter provides a description of the origin, definition, and scope of [[Ayurveda]]. It further deliberates on the critical concepts of [[Ayu]] (or the life-span of a human being) and its qualitative dimensions, and [[arogya]] (or [[health]]) as a means of achieving the four fundamental instincts (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) of life on this earth.
In [[Ayurveda]], the process of scientific inquiry and creation of knowledge involves the community of people or societies at large ([[loka]]). Within the community, it is believed that scientific knowledge is created by the interchange of information between patients, practitioners and researchers through various modes of interaction. The knowledge created in this process is theorized, supported with applicable evidence and logic, and then documented systematically in the scientific scriptures ([[shaastra]]). This explains the mode of ''Ayurvedic'' knowledge creation (which corresponds with the current method of scientific inquiry and knowledge creation). Once documented, the “higher levels” of scientific knowledge – or inferences - of the [[shaastra]] are delivered again to the [[loka]] for public use. Thus, knowledge creation is a dynamic, iterative process involving the [[loka]] and the [[shaastra]]. When this dynamic interaction stops, knowledge becomes static and is dropped back in the history and the search for new alternative knowledge continues.
In [[Ayurveda]], the process of scientific inquiry and creation of knowledge involves the community of people or societies at large ([[loka]]). Within the community, it is believed that scientific knowledge is created by the interchange of information between patients, practitioners and researchers through various modes of interaction. The knowledge created in this process is theorized, supported with applicable evidence and logic, and then documented systematically in the scientific scriptures ([[shaastra]]). This explains the mode of Ayurvedic knowledge creation (which corresponds with the current method of scientific inquiry and knowledge creation). Once documented, the “higher levels” of scientific knowledge – or inferences - of the [[shaastra]] are delivered again to the [[loka]] for public use. Thus, knowledge creation is a dynamic, iterative process involving the [[loka]] and the [[shaastra]]. When this dynamic interaction stops, knowledge becomes static and is dropped back in the history and the search for new alternative knowledge continues.
The process of origin/emergence of [[Ayurveda]] (ayurvedavatarana) as described in this chapter should be viewed from this perspective, symbolic of this iterative process of creation of knowledge. It touches upon certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] such as the four dimensional concept of [[ayu]] or [[life]] and its qualitative categorization into ''sukhayu'' (happy life), ''duhkhayu'' (unhappy life), ''hitayu'' (positive life in harmony with self and the surroundings), and ''ahitayu''(negative life, with negative state of mind and in disharmony with the surroundings), reflecting on the individual as well as the social aspects of one’s life. The chapter also deals with the doctrine of [[samanya]] (similar) and [[vishesha]] (dissimilar), [[dravya]] ''samgraha'' (knowledge of physical material), attributes of physical and mental [[dosha]], the basic causes of ill-health, the origin of [[rasa]] (taste) and its significance, the attributes of six tastes, the nature of the material world, and the whole range of ayurvedic materia medica. Overall, as one can expect from the very first chapter of any treatise, this chapter gives guidelines about important fundamental concepts of [[Ayurveda]] that are necessary to understand the whole text.
The process of origin/emergence of [[Ayurveda]] (ayurvedavatarana) as described in this chapter should be viewed from this perspective, symbolic of this iterative process of creation of knowledge. It touches upon certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] such as the four dimensional concept of [[ayu]] or [[life]] and its qualitative categorization into sukhayu (happy life), duhkhayu (unhappy life), hitayu (positive life in harmony with self and the surroundings), and ahitayu(negative life, with negative state of mind and in disharmony with the surroundings), reflecting on the individual as well as the social aspects of one’s life. The chapter also deals with the doctrine of [[samanya]] (similar) and [[vishesha]] (dissimilar), [[dravya]] samgraha (knowledge of physical material), attributes of physical and mental [[dosha]], the basic causes of ill-health, the origin of [[rasa]] (taste) and its significance, the attributes of six tastes, the nature of the material world, and the whole range of ayurvedic materia medica. Overall, as one can expect from the very first chapter of any treatise, this chapter gives guidelines about important fundamental concepts of [[Ayurveda]] that are necessary to understand the whole text.
It is very important for a [[physician]] to have the full knowledge of materials used in formulating ''Ayurvedic'' drugs. For this purpose, the chapter provides a detailed taxonomy of groups of medications (or recipes), including properties and actions of each ingredient within a group. To zero in from the generic to the specific, the entire “universe” of ingredients are classified into three groups: those that are useful for maintaining good health, those that are useful for treating disorders, and finally, those that are harmful to health. The first two categories, i.e., ingredients useful for health and for treating the diseases have been described by further dividing them into various ways with categorization by three general sources viz. animal-based, plant-based, and earth/mineral-based. Plant-based ingredients are further sub-classified according to their parts used viz. fruits, roots, latex and bark, with relevant examples that are further subdivided according to their applicability in therapeutics e.g. useful for [[vamana]] (therapeutic emesis), [[virechana]] (therapeutic purgation) or [[basti]] (therapeutic enema). The specific actions of the individual ingredients of such groups which may not find place in later chapters have been described herein e.g. five types of salts and eight types of urine.
It is very important for a [[physician]] to have the full knowledge of materials used in formulating ''Ayurvedic'' drugs. For this purpose, the chapter provides a detailed taxonomy of groups of medications (or recipes), including properties and actions of each ingredient within a group. To zero in from the generic to the specific, the entire “universe” of ingredients are classified into three groups: those that are useful for maintaining good health, those that are useful for treating disorders, and finally, those that are harmful to health. The first two categories, i.e., ingredients useful for health and for treating the diseases have been described by further dividing them into various ways with categorization by three general sources viz. animal-based, plant-based, and earth/mineral-based. Plant-based ingredients are further sub-classified according to their parts used viz. fruits, roots, latex and bark, with relevant examples that are further subdivided according to their applicability in therapeutics e.g. useful for [[vamana]] (therapeutic emesis), [[virechana]] (therapeutic purgation) or [[basti]] (therapeutic enema). The specific actions of the individual ingredients of such groups which may not find place in later chapters have been described herein e.g. five types of salts and eight types of urine.
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Bharadwaja [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharadwaja]], a great ascetic, went to Indra[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indra]], the King of Gods and the saviour, in quest of longevity. [3]
Bharadwaja [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharadwaja]], a great scholar, went to the King of Gods and the saviour Indra[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indra]], in quest of longevity. [3]
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[[Ayurveda]] in its entirety as recited by Brahma[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma]] was received by Prajapati [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajapati]] at first. Then the Ashwins (received) the knowledge. From Ashwins, lord Indra received it fully. That is why Bharadwaja, as beseeched by the sages, came to Indra.[4-5]
==== Problem of [[health]] and conference for its solution ====
==== Problem of [[health]] and conference for its solution ====
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[[Health]] is the best source of virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation; while diseases are destroyers of this (source), welfare and [[life]] itself. Now this ([[disease]]) has appeared as a great obstacle for human beings and what could be the means for their amelioration. Saying this, they concentrated on finding the solution. Then in that state of [[meditation]] they realized Indra as savior. That only the King of the Gods will be able to tell the correct means of amelioration (of [[diseases]]).[15-17]
[[Health]] is the best source of virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation; while diseases are destroyers of this (source), welfare and [[life]] itself. Now this ([[disease]]) has appeared as a great obstacle for human beings and what could be the means for their amelioration. Saying this, they concentrated on finding the solution. Then in that state of [[meditation]] they realized Indra as savior. That only the King of the Gods will be able to tell the correct means of amelioration (of [[disease]]).[15-17]
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Who should go to the abode of Indra to inquire about correct means of amelioration of disease? On this, volunteered Bharadwaja, “I may be deputed for this work” and so he was deputed by the sages. Having gone to Indra’s abode, he saw Indra- the slayer of ''Bala'' (a demon), sitting in the midst of the groups of godly sages and glittering like fire. He approached him with felicitating words of praises and blessings and the intelligent one submitted to him the message of the sages humbly and in the best possible way- “[[Diseases]] causing fear in all living beings have appeared so, O Lord of the Gods! Tell me the proper measure for their amelioration!”. Then Lord Indra, having sensed the wide intelligence of the great sage, delivered to him Ayurveda in a few words. [18-23]
Who should go to the abode of Indra to inquire about the correct means of amelioration of [[disease]]? On this, volunteered Bharadwaja, “I may be deputed for this work” and so he was deputed by the sages. Having gone to Indra’s abode, he saw Indra- the slayer of ''Bala'' (a demon), sitting in the midst of the groups of godly sages and glittering like fire. He approached him with felicitating words of praises and blessings and the intelligent one submitted to him the message of the sages humbly and in the best possible way- “[[Diseases]] causing fear in all living beings have appeared so, O Lord of the Gods! Tell me the proper measure for their amelioration!”. Then Lord Indra, having sensed the wide intelligence of the great sage, delivered to him [[Ayurveda]] in a few words. [18-23]
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[[Ayu]] (life) implies the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul and is known by the synonym ''dhari'' (that which preserves vitality), ''jivita'' (that which is live), ''nityaga'' (that which is in continuum), and ''anubandha'' (that which is interdependent, or a link between past life and the future life). [42]
[[Ayu]] (life) implies the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul and is known by the synonym dhari (that which preserves vitality), jivita (that which is live), nityaga (that which is in continuum), and anubandha (that which is interdependent, or a link between past life and the future life). [42]
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====Superiority of [[Ayurveda]] (over other [[Vedas]])====
====Superiority of [[Ayurveda]] (over other [[Veda]])====
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[[Panchamahabhuta]] (the five fundamental elements, [[akasha]], [[vayu]], [[tejas]], [[aap]] and [[prithvi]]), [[soul]], [[mind]], [[time]] and [[dik]] (orientation in space) are collectively called [[dravya]] (elements). [[Dravya]], when supplemented with sense organs, form the sentient being, while without them would be insentient. [48]
[[Panchamahabhuta]] (the five fundamental elements, [[akasha]], [[vayu]], [[tejas]], [[aap]] and [[prithvi]]), [[atma]](soul), [[manas]](mind), [[kala]](time) and [[dik]] (orientation in space) are collectively called [[dravya]] (elements). [[Dravya]], when supplemented with sense organs, form the sentient being, while without them would be insentient. [48]
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Sense objects (''shabda, sparsha, rupa, rasa, gandha'' (sound, touch, sight, taste and smell respectively), properties beginning with ''guru'' (twenty properties like ''guru, laghu'', etc), [[buddhi]] (intelligence) and ending with [[prayatna]] (effort),properties beginning with ''para'' are called [[guna]]. The movement initiated by (the attribute of [[atma]]) ''prayatna'' (effort) is called [[karma]] (action).[49]
Sense objects shabda, sparsha, rupa, rasa, gandha (sound, touch, sight, taste and smell respectively), properties beginning with guru (twenty properties like guru, laghu, etc), [[buddhi]] (intelligence) and ending with [[prayatna]] (effort),properties beginning with "para" are called [[guna]]. The movement initiated by (the attribute of [[atma]]) prayatna (effort) is called [[karma]] (action).[49]
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Thus has been described the cause. Now the effect [[dhatusamya]] is discussed here, because the objective of this compendium is achievement of [[dhatusamya]] (equilibrium of sustaining and nourishing factors i.e. body constituents). [53]
Thus has been described the cause. Now the effect [[dhatu]] [[samya]] is discussed here, because the objective of this compendium is achievement of [[dhatu]] [[samya]] (equilibrium of sustaining and nourishing factors i.e. body constituents). [53]
====Three Types of Causes of [[Diseases]] ====
====Three Types of Causes of [[Diseases]] ====
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[[Vayu]] is dry, cold, light, subtle, mobile, non-slimy and rough in its characteristics and can be pacified by drugs that have opposite properties (i.e., creamy or oily, heavy and thick in their property). [[Pitta]] is mildly unctuous, hot, sharp, viscous, sour, mobile and pungent, and can readily be pacified by drugs and food articles having opposite properties. [[Kapha]] is heavy and dense, cold, soft, unctuous, sweet, immobile and slimy, and can be subsided by drugs and food articles possessing opposite properties. [59-61]
[[Vayu]] is dry, cold, light, subtle, mobile, non-slimy and rough in its characteristics and can be pacified by drugs that have opposite properties (i.e., creamy or oily, heavy and thick in their property).
[[Pitta]] is mildly unctuous, hot, sharp, viscous, sour, mobile and pungent, and can readily be pacified by drugs and food articles having opposite properties.
[[Kapha]] is heavy and dense, cold, soft, unctuous, sweet, immobile and slimy, and can be subsided by drugs and food articles possessing opposite properties. [59-61]
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[[Rasa]] (taste) is the object of gustatory sense organ or tongue ([[rasana]]). Source elements for its manifestation are [[apa]] ([[jala mahabhuta]]) and [[kshiti]] ([[prithvi mahabhuta]]). The variation in taste are caused due to other three [[mahabhuta]] like [[kha]] ([[akasha]], [[vayu]] and [[agni]]). [64]
[[Rasa]] (taste) is the object of gustatory sense organ or tongue . Source elements for its manifestation are [[jala mahabhuta]] and [[prithvi mahabhuta]]. The variation in taste are caused due to other three [[mahabhuta]] like [[akasha]], [[vayu]] and [[agni]]. [64]
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Drug is of three types- (based on [[prabhava]]) (1) some (drugs) are pacifiers of [[dosha]], (2) some vitiate [[dhatu]] and (3) some are taken as (responsible for) maintaining normal [[health]]. [67]
Drug is of three types- (based on [[prabhava]]) (1) some (drugs) are pacifiers of [[dosha]], (2) some vitiate [[dhatu]] and (3) some are taken as (responsible for) maintaining normal [[health]]. [67]
=== Classification of Matters according to Source ===
=== Classification of matter according to Source ===
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तत् पुनस्त्रिविधं प्रोक्तं जङ्गमौद्भिदपार्थिवम् |६८|
तत् पुनस्त्रिविधं प्रोक्तं जङ्गमौद्भिदपार्थिवम् |६८|
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tat punastrividhaM proktaM ja~ggamaudbhidapArthivam |68|
tat punastrividhaM proktaM ja~ggamaudbhidapArthivam |68|
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According to the source of origin, the drugs are of three types viz. animal origin, plant origin and earth origin.[68]
According to the source of origin, the drugs are of three types viz. animal origin, plant origin and earth origin.[68]
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====Animal origin drugs ====
====1. Animal origin drugs ====
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Animal origin drugs - Honey, milk, bile, animal-fat, bone-marrow, blood, flesh, excrements, urine, skin, semen, bone, ligaments, horns, nails, hoof, hair, down (fine soft dense hair) and inspissated bile - are substances obtained from animals. [68-69]
Animal origin drugs - Honey, milk, bile, animal-fat, bone-marrow, blood, flesh, excrements, urine, skin, semen, bone, ligaments, horns, nails, hoof, hair, down (fine soft dense hair) and inspissated bile - are substances obtained from animals. [68-69]
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====Earth origin drugs ====
====2. Earth origin and 3. Plant origin drugs ====
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Drugs obtained from earth are gold, five metals (silver, copper, tin, lead and iron) along with their by-products such as ''shilajatu'' (bitumen), sand, lime, red and yellow arsenic (''manahshila'' and ''hartala''), gems, salt, red ochre and antimony.
Drugs obtained from earth are gold, five metals (silver, copper, tin, lead and iron) along with their by-products such as shilajatu (bitumen), sand, lime, red and yellow arsenic (manahshila and hartala), gems, salt, red ochre and antimony.
Plant origin drugs: Plant origin drugs are of four types viz. direct fruiters, creepers, flower based fruiters and herbs. [70-71]
'''Plant origin drugs:'''
Plant origin drugs are of four types viz. direct fruiters, creepers, flower based fruiters and herbs. [70-71]
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The plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as ''vanaspati'' (Gymno-spermia). The plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as ''vanaspatya'' (angio-spermia). The plants which die out after flowering are known as [[aushadhi]] (annuals). The plants which creep or twine are known as ''virudha'' (creepers). [72]
The plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as vanaspati (Gymno-spermia). The plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as vanaspatya (angio-spermia). The plants which die out after flowering are known as [[aushadhi]] (annuals). The plants which creep or twine are known as virudha (creepers). [72]
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Fruits of the following 19 plants are used as drugs- ''Shankhini, Vidanga, Trapusha, Madanaphala, Dhamargava, Ikshvaku, Jimutam, Kritavedhana'', two types of ''Klitakam'' occurring in marshy and dry land (''anupam, sthalaja''), ''Prakirya, Udakirya, Pratyakpushpa, Abhaya, Antahkotarapushpi, Hastiparni, Sharada, Kampillaka, Aragvadhaphala'' and ''Kutaja''.
Fruits of the following 19 plants are used as drugs- Shankhini, Vidanga, Trapusha, Madanaphala, Dhamargava, Ikshvaku, Jimutam, Kritavedhana, two types of Klitakam occurring in marshy and dry land (anupam, sthalaja), Prakirya, Udakirya, Pratyakpushpa, Abhaya, Antahkotarapushpi, Hastiparni, Sharada, Kampillaka, Aragvadhaphala and Kutaja.
Out of the above ''Dhamargava, Ikshvaku, Jimutam, Krutavedhana, Madanaphala, Kutaja, Trapusham'' and ''Hastiparnini'' are used for ''vamana'' and ''asthapana basti''.
Out of the above Dhamargava, Ikshvaku, Jimutam, Krutavedhana, Madanaphala, Kutaja, Trapusham and Hastiparnini are used for [[vamana]] and asthapana [[basti]].
Pratyakpushpa is used for [[nasya]] karma. The remaining 10 drugs are useful for [[virechana]] karma. Thus the names and main actions of 19 fruiters have been described [81-85.5].
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====Four major unctuous substances ([[mahasneha]])====
====Four major unctuous substances ([[mahasneha]])====
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The unctuous substances produce oiliness, vitality, complexion, strength and growth in the body and provide relief in [[vata]], [[pitta]] and [[kapha]]. [87-87.5]
The unctuous substances produce oiliness, vitality, complexion, strength and growth in the body and provide relief in [[vata]], [[pitta]] and [[kapha]]. [87-87.5]
==== Five [[salt]] ====
==== Five salt ====
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Five principal salts are black/sochal [[salt]] (''sauvarchala''), rock salt (''saindhava''), ammonium chloride (''vid''), earth/efflorescence salt (''audbhid'') and sea salt (''samudra''). They are unctuous, hot, sharp/acute and foremost in digestive-stimulants. [88-89]
Five principal salts are black/sochal salt (sauvarchala), rock salt (saindhava), ammonium chloride (vida), earth/efflorescence salt (audbhida) and sea salt (samudra). They are unctuous, hot, sharp/acute and foremost in digestive-stimulants. [88-89]
===== Utility of [[salt]] =====
===== Utility of salt =====
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Salts are used for external applications ([[alepa]]), oleation, sudation, in emesis and purgation preparations, in evacuation and unctuous types of enemata preparations, inunction and errhine therapy; in surgical operations, suppository, collyrium, friction massage and as a food. It is indicated in indigestion, constipation, disorders of [[vata]], [[gulma]], colic and abdominal diseases. Thus, salts have been described. [90-91.5]
Salts are used for external applications (alepa), oleation, sudation, in emesis and purgation preparations, in evacuation and unctuous types of enemata preparations, inunction and errhine therapy; in surgical operations, suppository, collyrium, friction massage and as a food. It is indicated in indigestion, constipation, disorders of [[vata]], [[gulma]], colic and abdominal diseases. Thus, salts have been described. [90-91.5]
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==== Eight important varieties of [[urine]] ====
==== Eight important varieties of urine ====
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Eight principal urines described by the Atreya School for medicinal use are urine of ewe, she-goat, cow, she-buffalo, elephant, she-camel, mare and she-donkey. [92-93]
Eight principal urines described by the Atreya School for medicinal use are urine of ewe, she-goat, cow, she-buffalo, elephant, she-camel, mare and she-donkey. [92-93]
===== General properties and external uses of [[urine]] =====
===== General properties and external uses of urine =====
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The urine of ewe is slightly bitter, unctuous and not antagonistic to ''pitta''. The urine of she-goat is astringent, sweet and wholesome and dispels the morbid [[dosha]] [100]
The urine of ewe is slightly bitter, unctuous and not antagonistic to [[pitta]].
The urine of she-goat is astringent, sweet and wholesome and dispels the morbid [[dosha]]. [100]
=====Properties of cow’s urine =====
=====Properties of cow’s urine =====
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The urine of cow is slightly sweet, alleviates discordance of [[dosha]] and cures worms and chronic dermatoses ([[kushtha]]) and relieves itching. Its proper intake cures disorders of abdomen. [101]
The urine of cow is slightly sweet, alleviates discordance of [[dosha]]. It cures worms, skin diseases ([[kushtha]]) and relieves itching. Its proper intake cures disorders of abdomen. [101]
=====Properties of [[urine]] of buffalo and elephant =====
=====Properties of urine of buffalo and elephant =====
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The urine of buffalo provides relief in piles, edema and disorders leading to general enlargement of abdomen ([[udara]]). The urine of she-elephant is salty and provides relief in worms and dermatoses ([[kushtha]]). It is also useful in the treatment of retention of feces and urine, poisoning, [[kapha]] disorders and piles. [102.5]
The urine of buffalo provides relief in piles, edema and disorders leading to general enlargement of abdomen ([[udara]]). The urine of she-elephant is salty and provides relief in worms and dermatoses ([[kushtha]]). It is also useful in the treatment of retention of feces and urine, poisoning, [[kapha]] disorders and piles. [102.5]
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=====Properties of [[urine]] of she-camel =====
=====Properties of urine of she-camel =====
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The urine of she-camel is slightly bitter and provides relief in breathlessness, cough and piles. [103]
The urine of she-camel is slightly bitter and provides relief in breathlessness, cough and piles. [103]
=====Properties of [[urine]] of mare and she-donkey =====
=====Properties of urine of mare and she-donkey =====
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Thus described were the medicinal properties and action of eight types of urine. [104].
Thus described were the medicinal properties and action of eight types of urine. [104].
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=====Eight important varieties of [[milk]] =====
=====Eight important varieties of [[milk]] =====
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[[Milk]] is indicated in [[pandu]](anemia), [[amlapitta]] (acid dyspepsia), consumption, [[gulma]] and [[udara]] (generalized enlargement of abdomen), diarrhea, fever, burning sensation, particularly in edema, vaginal and seminal disorders, oliguria and hard stools. It is wholesome to disorders of [[vata]] and [[pitta]]. [110-111]
[[Milk]] is indicated in anemia([[pandu]]), acid dyspepsia ([[amlapitta]]), consumption, [[gulma]] and generalized enlargement of abdomen([[udara]]), diarrhea, fever, burning sensation, particularly in edema, vaginal and seminal disorders, oliguria and hard stools. It is wholesome to disorders of [[vata]] and [[pitta]]. [110-111]
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=====Pharmaceutical uses of [[milk]] =====
=====Pharmaceutical uses of [[milk]] =====
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Goat-herders, sheep-herders, cowherders and forest-dwellers are acquainted with names and forms/identification of various medicinal herbs and the plants. [120]
Goat-herds, shepherds, cowherds and forest-dwellers are acquainted with names and forms/identification of various medicinal herbs and the plants. [120]
====Limitation of knowledge of names of plants only ====
====Limitation of knowledge of names of plants only ====
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Just by knowing the names and forms of herbs, though, no one can claim to have a perfect knowledge of medicinal uses of the plants. [121]
Just by knowing the names and forms of herbs, though, no one can claim to have a perfect knowledge of the medicinal uses of the plants. [121]
====Importance of complete knowledge of therapeutic actions of plants ====
====Importance of complete knowledge of therapeutic actions of plants ====
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* The quest for [[longevity]] is the basic purpose of any medical science and the desire to live long is the important desire of every mankind. [verse 3]
* The quest for [[longevity]] is the basic purpose of any medical science and the desire to live long is the important desire of every mankind. [verse 3]
* An interactive conversation between patients, practitioners, researchers and community ([[Loka]]) members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the [[Shaastra]], or the Scientific body of knowledge, to help find the most effective formulations to alleviate [[diseases]].
* An interactive conversation between patients, practitioners, researchers and community ([[Loka]]) members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the [[Shaastra]], or the Scientific body of [[knowledge]], to help find the most effective formulations to alleviate [[diseases]].
* The patient seeks treatment when the [[disease]] becomes obstacle in daily routine of one’s [[life]]. [verse 6]
* The patient seeks treatment when the [[disease]] becomes obstacle in daily routine of one’s [[life]]. [verse 6]
* Four objectives of [[life]]: [[Health]] is the root to attain all four basic objectives of [[life]] i.e. ''Dharma'' (guidelines for life or virtues), ''Artha'' (Wealth). ''Kama'' (desires or enjoyments) and ''Moksha'' (emancipation). The [[diseases]] are destroyer of all this as well as harmony within an environment. [verse 15]
* Four objectives of [[life]]: [[Health]] is the root to attain all four basic objectives of [[life]] i.e. Dharma(guidelines for life or virtues), Artha (Wealth). Kama (desires or enjoyments) and Moksha(emancipation). The [[diseases]] are destroyer of all this as well as harmony within an environment. [verse 15]
* Three principles for [[knowledge]] of [[health]] and [[disease]]: The best ways of [[knowledge]] about [[health]] and [[disease]] are knowing [[hetu]](causes), [[linga]] (symptomatology) and [[aushadha]] (therapeutics). [Verse 24]
* Three principles for [[knowledge]] of [[health]] and [[disease]]: The best ways of [[knowledge]] about [[health]] and [[disease]] are knowing [[hetu]](causes), [[linga]] (symptomatology) and [[aushadha]] (therapeutics). [Verse 24]
* Six categories of everything : [[Samanya]] (principle of similarity), [[vishesha]] (principle of distinction), [[guna]] (property), [[dravya]] (~substance), [[karma]] (action) and [[samavaya]] (inherence/ inseparable concomittance) are six basic categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable [[life]] span can be attained. [verse 27-29]
* Six categories of everything : [[Samanya]] (principle of similarity), [[vishesha]] (principle of distinction), [[guna]] (property), [[dravya]] (~substance), [[karma]] (action) and [[samavaya]] (inherence/ inseparable concomittance) are six basic categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable [[life]] span can be attained. [verse 27-29]
* Two ways for attainment of [[knowledge]]: [[Ayurveda]] [[knowledge]] can be attained through ''[[jnana]] chakshu'' (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and [[dhyana]] chakshu'' (through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]
* Two ways for attainment of [[knowledge]]: [[Ayurveda]] [[knowledge]] can be attained through [[jnana]] chakshu (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and [[dhyana]] chakshu(through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]
* Eight divine powers after knowledge: After acquiring knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], one gets empowered with [[buddhi]] (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), [[siddhi]] (success), [[smriti]] ([[memory]]), [[medha]] (grasping power of intellect), [[dhriti]] (restraint), [[kirti]] (fame), [[kshama]] (forbearance) and [[daya]] (kindness). [verse 39]
* Eight divine powers after knowledge: After acquiring knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], one gets empowered with [[buddhi]] (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), [[siddhi]] (success), [[smriti]] ([[memory]]), [[medha]] (grasping power of intellect), [[dhriti]] (restraint), [[kirti]] (fame), [[kshama]] (forbearance) and [[daya]] (kindness). [verse 39]
* Definition of [[Ayurveda]]: Ayurveda deals with all aspects of life (good, bad, happy and unhappy life) and its extent.
* Definition of [[Ayurveda]]: Ayurveda deals with all aspects of life (good, bad, happy and unhappy life) and its extent.
* Definition of [[Ayu]] ([[life]]) and its synonyms: [[Ayu]] means the conjunction of physical [[body]], [[senses]], [[mind]] and [[soul]]. It shall be sustainable, in continuum and live at all times. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like ''sukshma [[sharira]] (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of [[Ayu]] denotes life process with the [[atman]], also referred to as ''jiva-atman'' (or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The [[atma]] (or [[atman]], as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of ''paramatma'' i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.
* Definition of [[Ayu]] ([[life]]) and its synonyms: [[Ayu]] means the conjunction of physical [[body]], [[senses]]([[indriya]]), [[mind]]([[manas]]) and [[soul]]([[atma]]). It shall be sustainable, in continuum and live at all times. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like sukshma [[sharira]] (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of [[Ayu]] denotes life process with the [[atman]], also referred to as jiva-atman(or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The [[atma]] (or [[atman]], as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of paramatma i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.
* [[Ayurveda]] is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present [[life]] as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43]
* [[Ayurveda]] is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present [[life]] as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43]
* Theory of [[samanya]] and [[vishesha]]: [[Samanya]] is the principle which enables to understand similarity between objects, while [[vishesha]] is the principle which enables to understand distinction between objects. [Verse 44-45]
* Theory of [[samanya]] and [[vishesha]]: [[Samanya]] is the principle which enables to understand similarity between objects, while [[vishesha]] is the principle which enables to understand distinction between objects. [Verse 44-45]
* The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being are [[mind]], [[soul]] and [[body]] constituting its foundation. The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to understand and explain all aspects of [[purusha]]. [Verse 46-47]
* The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being are [[mind]]([[manas]]), [[soul]]([[atma]]) and [[body]] constituting its foundation. The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to understand and explain all aspects of [[purusha]]. [Verse 46-47]
* Basic elements: [[Panchamahabhuta]] (or the Five Elements), such as [[akasha]] (space),[[vayu]] (air), [[tejas]] (fire), [[apa]] (water), and [[prithvi]] (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements ([[soul]], [[mind]], [[time]] and [[space]]) are collectively considered basic elements (of this [[universe]]). All the entities in the universe can be categorized into [[chetana]] (sentient/animate) and ''achetana'' (insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of [[atma]] ([[soul]]), but the presence or absence of sense organs. [[Guna]] (basic properties/qualities) and [[karma]] (actions): Sense objects (''shabda'" (sound), ''sparsha''(touch), ''rupa'' (appearance), [[rasa]](taste) and ''gandha''(smell)) are five ''vaisheshika'' (specific) properties.
* Basic elements: [[Panchamahabhuta]] (or the Five Elements), such as [[akasha]] (space),[[vayu]] (air), [[tejas]] (fire), [[apa]] (water), and [[prithvi]] (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements ([[soul]], [[mind]], [[time]] and [[space]]) are collectively considered basic elements (of this [[universe]]). All the entities in the universe can be categorized into [[chetana]] (sentient/animate) and achetana(insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of [[atma]] ([[soul]]), but the presence or absence of sense organs. [[Guna]] (basic properties/qualities) and [[karma]] (actions): Sense objects (shabda(sound), sparsha(touch), rupa(appearance), [[rasa]](taste) and gandha(smell)) are five vaisheshika(specific) properties.
*''Guru'' (heavy), ''laghu'' (light), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''ushna'' (hot), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''ruksha'' (dry), ''manda'' (mild/slow acting), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''sthira'' (stable/immobile), ''sara'' (unstable), ''mridu'' (soft), ''kathina'' (hard), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''pichchila'' (sticky), ''shlakshna'' (smooth), ''khara'' (rough), ''sthoola'' (gross), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''sandra'' (solid), ''drava'' (liquid/fluid) are twenty [[samanya]] (general) properties.
*Guru (heavy), laghu(light), sheeta(cool), ushna (hot), snigdha (unctuous), ruksha (dry), manda (mild/slow acting), tikshna (strong/fast acting), sthira (stable/immobile), sara (unstable), mridu (soft), kathina (hard), vishada (non-slimy), pichchila (sticky), shlakshna (smooth), khara(rough), sthoola (gross), sukshma (subtle), sandra (solid), drava (liquid/fluid) are twenty [[samanya]] (general) properties.
*[[Buddhi]] (knowledge) with [[smriti]] ([[memory]]), [[chetana]] (consciousness), [[dhriti]] (restraint), [[ahankara]] (ego), ''ichcha'' (inclination/desire), ''dwesha'' (aversion), ''sukha'' (comfort] , ''dukkha'' (discomfort), ''prayatna'' (effort) are properties of the [[atman]] or the Self.
*[[Buddhi]] (knowledge) with [[smriti]] ([[memory]]), [[chetana]] (consciousness), [[dhriti]] (restraint), [[ahankara]] (ego), ichcha (inclination/desire), dwesha (aversion), sukha (comfort) , dukkha (discomfort), prayatna (effort) are properties of the [[atman]] or the Self.
*''Para'' (superior), ''aparatva'' (other than the superior/best), [[yukti]] (rationale), ''samkhya'' (numeration), ''samyoga'' (combination), ''vibhaga'' (division), ''prithkatva'' (difference), ''parimana'' (measurement), ''samskar'' (processing/transformation), and ''abhyasa'' (continuous practice) are ten ''paradi'' (literally, "para" and "adi" (et cetera)), i.e., general properties . [verse 49]
*Para(superior), aparatva (other than the superior/best), [[yukti]] (rationale), samkhya(numeration), samyoga(combination), vibhaga (division), prithkatva (difference), parimana(measurement), samskar (processing/transformation), and abhyasa (continuous practice) are ten paradi(literally,para and adi (et cetera)), i.e., general properties . [verse 49]
* The movement initiated by ''prayatna'' (effort) is called [[karma]] (action). [verse 49]
* The movement initiated by prayatna(effort) is called [[karma]] (action). [verse 49]
* [[Samavaya]](Inseparability) : [[Samavaya]] is the inherent property of blending of [[dravya]] (i.e., substances/elements e.g., [[prithvi]] or earth etc.) with their [[guna]] (properties) and [[karma]] (actions).This is universal because no [[dravya]] (substance) is devoid of [[guna] (property). Every substance has some or the other property. [verse 50]
* [[Samavaya]](Inseparability) : [[Samavaya]] is the inherent property of blending of [[dravya]] (i.e., substances/elements e.g., [[prithvi]] or earth etc.) with their [[guna]] (properties) and [[karma]] (actions).This is universal because no [[dravya]] (substance) is devoid of [[guna]] (property). Every substance has some or the other property. [verse 50]
* [[Dravya]]: [[dravya]] is that in which the [[karma]] (action) and [[guna]] (properties) reside inherently and which is the [[samavayi]] [[karana]] (material cause) for any [[karya]](effect). [verse 51] Any entity which fulfils this criteria can be called as a [[dravya]]. Matter, energy and force all have certain [[guna]] (properties) and [[karma]] (actions) and they are [[samavayi]] [[karana]] for the effects, so all such entities can be called as [[dravya]].
* [[Dravya]]: [[dravya]] is that in which the [[karma]] (action) and [[guna]] (properties) reside inherently and which is the [[samavayi]] [[karana]] (material cause) for any [[karya]](effect). [verse 51] Any entity which fulfils this criteria can be called as a [[dravya]]. Matter, energy and force all have certain [[guna]] (properties) and [[karma]] (actions) and they are [[samavayi]] [[karana]] for the effects, so all such entities can be called as [[dravya]].
* [[Guna]]: [[Guna]] (properties) [verse 51] are inherent in a [[dravya]]. [[Karma]] (action) is also inherent in [[dravya]]. But unlike [[karma]], [[guna]] cannot initiate any movement on their own. The movements have to be initiated by [[karma]].
* [[Guna]]: [[Guna]] (properties) are inherent in a [[dravya]].[verse 51] [[Karma]] (action) is also inherent in [[dravya]]. But unlike [[karma]], [[guna]] cannot initiate any movement on their own. The movements have to be initiated by [[karma]].
* [[Karma]](action/effect): Action is inherent in the very phenomenon of combination/conjunction and division/disjunction , and thus, inherent in [[dravya]] as well. The act of combining or dividing is [[karma]] (action). [[Karma]] does not require anything else for showing its effect. [verse 52]
* [[Karma]](action/effect): Action is inherent in the very phenomenon of combination/conjunction and division/disjunction , and thus, inherent in [[dravya]] as well. The act of combining or dividing is [[karma]] (action). [[Karma]] does not require anything else for showing its effect. [verse 52]
* [[Karana]] (cause) and a definition of [[health]]: The factor responsible for action is [[karana]] (or cause), which results in a desired [[karya'' (effect or outcome), which is the end product of [[karma''. In this verse, [[samanya]], [[vishesha]] etc. are termed as [[karana]] (cause), and the [[karya]] (desired effect) is [[dhatusamya]] i.e. homeostasis. [[Dhatusamya]] leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]
* [[Karana]] (cause) and a definition of [[health]]: The factor responsible for action is [[karana]] (or cause), which results in a desired [[karya'' (effect or outcome), which is the end product of [[karma]]. In this verse, [[samanya]], [[vishesha]] etc. are termed as [[karana]] (cause), and the [[karya]] (desired effect) is [[dhatusamya]] i.e. homeostasis. [[Dhatusamya]] leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]
* [[Karya]] [Results to be achieved]: The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to maintain and restore equilibrium among [[dhatu]] (the factors responsible for various physiological actions). [verse 53]
* [[Karya]] (Results to be achieved): The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to maintain and restore equilibrium among [[dhatu]] (the factors responsible for various physiological actions). [verse 53]
* Three causes of all [[disease]]: Misuse/abuse, avoidance and excessive use of time, intellect and sense objects constitute the threefold cause of both psychic and somatic disorders. [verse 54]
* Three causes of all [[disease]]: Misuse/abuse, avoidance and excessive use of time, intellect and sense objects constitute the threefold cause of both psychic and somatic disorders. [verse 54]
* Locations for [[disease]] and pleasures: [[Body]] and [[mind]] are the locations of disorders as well as pleasures. The balanced use of [[time]], [[intellect]] and sense objects is the cause of pleasures. Equilibrium leads to pleasures. [ verse 55]
* Locations for [[disease]] and pleasures: [[Body]] and [[mind]] are the locations of disorders as well as pleasures. The balanced use of [[time]], [[intellect]] and sense objects is the cause of pleasures. Equilibrium leads to pleasures. [ verse 55]
*[[Dosha]]: [[Vata]], [[pitta]] and [[kapha]] are [[dosha]] associated with the body. [[Rajas]] and [[tamas]] are mental [[dosha]]. These [[dosha]] can vitiate the [[body]] and [[mind]] respectively and are responsible for [[disease]]. [verse 57]
*[[Dosha]]: [[Vata]], [[pitta]] and [[kapha]] are [[dosha]] associated with the body. [[Rajas]] and [[tamas]] are mental [[dosha]]. These [[dosha]] can vitiate the [[body]] and [[mind]] respectively and are responsible for [[disease]]. [verse 57]
** Treatment of these [[dosha]]: Body-related [[dosha]] are pacified by the remedial measures of divine and rational therapeutics. The treatment for vitiated mental [[dosha]] includes knowledge of self, specific scientific knowledge, encouragement of mind, remembrance/memory of experiences and meditation/concentration. These are the principles of psychotherapy in [[Ayurveda]]. [verse 58]
** Treatment of these [[dosha]]: Body-related [[dosha]] are pacified by the remedial measures of divine and rational therapeutics. The treatment for vitiated mental [[dosha]] includes knowledge of self, specific scientific knowledge, encouragement of mind, remembrance/memory of experiences and meditation/concentration. These are the principles of psychotherapy in [[Ayurveda]]. [verse 58]
** Properties of [[vata dosha]] & treatment: [[Vata dosha]] is ''ruksha''(dry), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''laghu'' (light), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''chala'' (mobile), ''vishada'' (non-slimy) and ''khara'' (rough) in properties and is pacified by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 59]
** Properties of [[vata dosha]] & treatment: [[Vata dosha]] is ruksha(dry), sheeta(cool), laghu(light), sukshma(subtle), chala(mobile), vishada (non-slimy) and khara (rough) in properties and is pacified by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 59]
** Properties of [[pitta dosha]] and treatment: [[Pitta dosha]] is ''sasneha'' (or, with unctuousness), ''ushna'' (hot), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''drava'' (liquid), ''amla'' (sour), ''sara'' (unstable) and ''katu'' (pungent) and is pacified immediately by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 60]
** Properties of [[pitta dosha]] and treatment: [[Pitta dosha]] is sasneha (or, with unctuousness), ushna(hot), tikshna(strong/fast acting), drava(liquid), amla(sour), sara (unstable) and katu (pungent) and is pacified immediately by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 60]
** Properties of [[kapha dosha]] and treatment: The properties of [[kapha dosha]] are ''guru'' (heavy), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''mrudu'' (soft), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''madhura'' (sweet), ''sthira'' (stable/immobile) and ''pichchila'' (slimy). This is subsided by (the drugs and substances having) opposite properties. [verse 61]
** Properties of [[kapha dosha]] and treatment: The properties of [[kapha dosha]] are guru (heavy), sheeta(cool), mrudu (soft), snigdha (unctuous), madhura (sweet), sthira(stable/immobile) and pichchila(slimy). This is subsided by (the drugs and substances having) opposite properties. [verse 61]
** Curability and incurability of diseases: Curable disorders are treated by drugs having opposite properties as mentioned above. The drugs should be administered after due considerations of three factors like [[desha]], [[matra]] and [[kala]]. [[Desha]] means the place of birth and residence of a person. [[Matra]] (suitable dose) should be decided as per the strength of patient, stage of disease, severity of disease and [[agni]]. In [[kala]], the season of precipitation of disease and time of administration of drug should be considered. These factors should be considered to achieve maximum efficacy of the treatments. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised. [verse 62]
** Curability and incurability of diseases: Curable disorders are treated by drugs having opposite properties as mentioned above. The drugs should be administered after due considerations of three factors like [[desha]], [[matra]] and [[kala]]. [[Desha]] means the place of birth and residence of a person. [[Matra]] (suitable dose) should be decided as per the strength of patient, stage of disease, severity of disease and [[agni]]. In [[kala]], the season of precipitation of disease and time of administration of drug should be considered. These factors should be considered to achieve maximum efficacy of the treatments. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised. [verse 62]
* [[Rasa]] (taste sensations): It is the object of gustatory sense organ or tongue (rasana). Its source material constituents are [[apa]] and [[prithvi]]. The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to combination of other three [[mahabhuta]] like [[akasha]], [[vayu]] and [[tejas]]. [verse 64]
* [[Rasa]] (taste sensations): It is the object of gustatory sense organ or tongue (rasana). Its source material constituents are [[apa]] and [[prithvi]]. The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to combination of other three [[mahabhuta]] like [[akasha]], [[vayu]] and [[tejas]]. [verse 64]
</div>
</div>
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table 1: Effect of [[rasa] on [[dosha]]
! rowspan="2" | Shad [[rasa]](six tastes)
! rowspan="2" | Shad [[rasa]](six tastes)
! rowspan="2" | Panchabhautika composition
! rowspan="2" | Panchabhautika composition
! [[Kapha]]!! [[Pitta]] !! [[Vata]]
! [[Kapha]]!! [[Pitta]] !! [[Vata]]
|-
|-
| Madhura(Sweet)|| [[Jala]] + [[Prithvi]] || <b>⇈</b> || <b>⇊</b> || <b>⇊</b>
| [[Madhura]](Sweet)|| [[Jala]] + [[Prithvi]] || <b>⇈</b> || <b>⇊</b> || <b>⇊</b>
|-
|-
| Amla (Sour)|| [[Prithvi]] + [[Agni]] || <b>⇈</b> || <b>⇈</b> || <b>⇊</b>
| [[Amla]] (Sour)|| [[Prithvi]] + [[Agni]] || <b>⇈</b> || <b>⇈</b> || <b>⇊</b>
|-
|-
| Lavana (Salt)|| [[Agni]] + [[Jala]] ||<b>⇈</b> || <b>⇈</b>|| <b>⇊</b>
| [[Lavana]] (Salt)|| [[Agni]] + [[Jala]] ||<b>⇈</b> || <b>⇈</b>|| <b>⇊</b>
|-
|-
| Katu (Pungent)|| [[Vayu]] + [[Agni]] ||<b>⇊</b> ||<b>⇈</b> || <b>⇈</b>
| [[Katu]] (Pungent)|| [[Vayu]] + [[Agni]] ||<b>⇊</b> ||<b>⇈</b> || <b>⇈</b>
|-
|-
| Tikta (Bitter) || [[Akash]] + [[Vayu]] || <b>⇊</b> ||<b>⇊</b> || <b>⇈</b>
| [[Tikta]] (Bitter) || [[Akasha]] + [[Vayu]] || <b>⇊</b> ||<b>⇊</b> || <b>⇈</b>
|-
|-
| Kashaya (Astringent) || [[Vayu]] + [[Prithvi]] || <b>⇊</b>|| <b>⇊</b> || <b>⇈</b>
| [[Kashaya]] (Astringent) || [[Vayu]] + [[Prithvi]] || <b>⇊</b>|| <b>⇊</b> || <b>⇈</b>
|-
|-
|}
|}
=== Threefold method of learning [[Ayurveda]] ===
=== Threefold method of learning [[Ayurveda]] ===
Ayurveda can be understood completely and effectively by gaining the threefold knowledge of ''hetu'' (cause), ''linga'' (symptoms) and ''aushadha''(remedies). [[Charak Samhita]] explains the causes, symptoms and remedies pertaining to health and diseases, and therefore should be used as the definitive source of knowledge of [[Ayurveda]].
[[Ayurveda]] can be understood completely and effectively by gaining the threefold knowledge of [[hetu]] (cause), [[linga]] (symptoms) and [[aushadha]](remedies). [[Charak Samhita]] explains the causes, symptoms and remedies pertaining to [[health]] and [[disease]], and therefore should be used as the definitive source of [[knowledge]] of [[Ayurveda]]. Three encyclopedias named "Hetu kosha", "Linga kosha" and "aushadha kosha" are prepared by [[Ayurveda]] scholars at Tilak Maharashtra University, Pune.<ref>Available from http://www.tmv.edu.in/pdf/Ayurved/Triskandha%20Kosha%20Project.pdf cited on 28/05/2020</ref> The current medical system follows this methodology of understanding causes, observing clinical features and managing the abnormal conditions through various therapeutic modalities.
Three encyclopedias named "Hetu kosha", "Linga kosha" and "aushadha kosha" are prepared by [[Ayurveda]] scholars at Tilak Maharashtra University, Pune.<ref>Available from http://www.tmv.edu.in/pdf/Ayurved/Triskandha%20Kosha%20Project.pdf cited on 28/05/2020</ref>
</div>
The current medical system follows this methodology of understanding causes, observing clinical features and managing the abnormal conditions through various therapeutic modalities.
=== Six basic principles ===
=== Six categories ===
<div style="text-align:justify;">
<div style="text-align:justify;">
A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of [[Ayurveda]] (for maintenance and promotion of health, and for curing diseases) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as ''padartha'' by ''vaisheshika darshana''. But [[Ayurveda]] terms them as ''karana''(cause), with ''dhatusamya''(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. health) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore health. As per ''Sushruta Samhita'' the duty of a ''vaidya''([[physician]]) is to maintain or restore health, can be executed in three ways-
A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of [[Ayurveda]] (for maintenance and promotion of [[health]], and for curing [[disease]]) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as [[padartha]] by [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Vaiseshika_Darshana_(%E0%A4%B5%Ev0%A5v%88%vE0%vA4%vB6%Ev0%A5v%87%vE0%vA4%vB7%vE0%vA4%BvF%Ev0%A4v%95%vE0%vA4%Av6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) ''vaisheshika darshana'']. But [[Ayurveda]] terms them as [[karana]](cause), with ''[[dhatu]] samya''(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. [[health]]) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore [[health]]. As per Sushruta Samhita, the duty of a [[vaidya]]([[physician]]) is to maintain or restore [[health]], can be executed in three ways:
#By augmenting the body constituents which are depleted, to normal level.
#By augmenting the body constituents which are depleted, to normal level.
#By depleting the body constituents which are abnormally increased, to normal level.
#By depleting the body constituents which are abnormally increased, to normal level.
#By maintaining the body constituents which are proportionate, in their normal proportions.
#By maintaining the body constituents which are proportionate, in their normal proportions.
For executing all these three duties, the ''vaidya'' (Ayurvedic practitioner or [[physician]]) requires ''samanya'' which leads to increase and ''vishesha'', which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. ''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' reside in ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', so a ''vaidya'' needs to study them. Relationship of ''guna'' and ''karma'' with [[dravya]] is ''samavaya''. ''Samavaya'' is responsible for existence of all the three - ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma''. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. [[Ayurveda]] gives more importance to ''gunas'' (properties and also qualities). So ''guna'' is mentioned first. E.g. ''Vacha'' is described as ''ugragandha'' (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, ''vaidya'' may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative.
For executing all these three duties, the [[vaidya]] (Ayurvedic practitioner or [[physician]]) requires [[samanya]] which leads to increase and [[vishesha]], which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. [[Samanya]] and [[vishesha]] reside in [[dravya]], [[guna]] and [[karma]], so a [[vaidya]] needs to study them. Relationship of [[guna]] and [[karma]] with [[dravya]] is [[samavaya]]. [[Samavaya]] is responsible for existence of all the three - [[dravya]], [[guna]] and [[karma]]. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. [[Ayurveda]] gives more importance to [[guna]] (properties and also qualities). So [[guna]] is mentioned first. E.g. [[Vacha]] is described as ''ugragandha'' (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, [[vaidya]] may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative.
It may appear that the concepts of ''samanya'' etc. are philosophical. But [[Ayurveda]] applies these concepts in practice.
It may appear that the concepts of [[samanya]] etc. are philosophical. But [[Ayurveda]] applies these concepts in practice.
Out of these six categories, ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' truly exist. ''Samanya, vishesha'' and ''samavaya'' do not exist in the physical world. They exist in a metaphysical sense.
Out of these six categories, [[dravya]], [[guna]] and [[karma]] truly exist. [[Samanya]], [[vishesha]] and [[samavaya]] do not exist in the physical world. They exist in a metaphysical sense.
=== Definition of [[Ayurveda]] ===
=== Definition of [[Ayurveda]] ===
Here four types of ''ayu'' are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a ''karmic'' consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 30. [[Ayurveda]] describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. [[Ayurveda]] also describes ''ayu pramana'' (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of [[Sutra Sthana]], guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like ''dashavidha pareeksha'' (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section [[Indriya Sthana]] helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. [[Ayurveda]] also describes ''ayu'' itself i.e. definition and understanding about ''Ayu''.
Here four types of [[ayu]] are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a ''karmic'' consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 30. [[Ayurveda]] describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. [[Ayurveda]] also describes [[ayu]] [[pramana]] (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of [[Sharira Sthana]], guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like [[dashavidha pareeksha]] (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section [[Indriya Sthana]] helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. [[Ayurveda]] also describes [[ayu]] itself i.e. definition and understanding about [[Ayu]].
==== Definition of Ayu and its synonyms ====
==== Definition of [[Ayu]] and its synonyms ====
[[Ayurveda]] discusses about ''Ayu'' which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides body it also consists of ''indriya'' (sense organs), ''mana''(mind) and ''atma''(soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, memory etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as ''paramanu'' (cell). The knowledge of ''ayu'' is explained by keeping such a living body in view.
[[Ayurveda]] discusses about [[Ayu]] which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides [[sharira]] (body) it also consists of [[indriya]] (sense organs), [[mana]](mind) and [[atma]](soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, [[memory]] etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as ''paramanu'' (cell). The knowledge of [[ayu]] is explained by keeping such a living body in view.
==== Indriya (sense organs) ====
==== Indriya (sense organs) ====
[[Ayurveda]] accepts separate existence of ''indriya'' (sense organs). ''Indriya'' are made up of the five ''mahabhutas''. Each ''indriya'' is composed of portions of all five ''mahabhutas'', with predominance of one of them. Accepting separate existence of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition as made up of ''mahabhutas'' is a significant concept philosophically, and also having important practical applications. Each ''indriya'' operates with the help of certain organs and structures called as ''adhishthana'' (substratum). E.g. eyes, specially retina, optic nerve and the centre for vision in the brain, all can be termed as ''adhishthana''. There is separate existence of ''indriya'', which is very subtle and therefore invisible. Since all these are made up of ''mahabhutas'', with specific diet and specific medicines they can be treated. This is because food and medicines(drugs) are also made up of ''mahabhutas''. Subtle portion from food nourishes ''indriyas'', and medicines can influence and regularise their functions. One can realise, that even the conditions pertaining to ''adhishthana'' like optic nerve degeneration are very much difficult to treat, so one can imagine about the conditions related to ''indriya''. But with acceptance of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition by ''mahabhutas'' provides scope to treat conditions not only pertaining to ''adhishthana'', but also ''indriya''.
[[Ayurveda]] accepts separate existence of [[indriya]] (sense organs). [[indriya]] are made up of the five [[mahabhuta]]. Each [[indriya]] is composed of portions of all five [[mahabhuta]], with predominance of one of them. Accepting separate existence of [[indriya]] and understanding their composition as made up of [[mahabhuta]] is a significant concept philosophically, and also having important practical applications. Each [[indriya]] operates with the help of certain organs and structures called as ''adhishthana'' (substratum). E.g. eyes, specially retina, optic nerve and the centre for vision in the brain, all can be termed as ''adhishthana''. There is separate existence of [[indriya]], which is very subtle and therefore invisible. Since all these are made up of [[mahabhuta]], with specific diet and specific medicines they can be treated. This is because food and medicines(drugs) are also made up of [[mahabhuta]]. Subtle portion from food nourishes [[indriya]], and medicines can influence and regularize their functions. One can realise, that even the conditions pertaining to ''adhishthana'' like optic nerve degeneration are very much difficult to treat, so one can imagine about the conditions related to [[indriya]]. But with acceptance of [[indriya]] and understanding their composition by [[mahabhuta]] provides scope to treat conditions not only pertaining to ''adhishthana'', but also [[indriya]].
Similarly accepting separate existence of ''mana'' (mind) is also significant. Because not only by correcting the higher functions of brain which are attributed to mind, but by directly acting on mind, [[Ayurveda]] provides better scope for it’s treatment. Accepting existence of atma (soul) is again very much significant. ''Buddhi'' (intelligence), ''smriti'' (memory) etc. are attributes of ''atma''. By accepting separate existence of ''atma'', they can be better understood and treated to improve.
Similarly accepting separate existence of [[mana]] (mind) is also significant. Because not only by correcting the higher functions of brain which are attributed to mind, but by directly acting on mind, [[Ayurveda]] provides better scope for it’s treatment. Accepting existence of [[atma]] (soul) is again very much significant. [[Buddhi]] (intelligence), [[smriti]] (memory) etc. are attributes of [[atma]]. By accepting separate existence of [[atma]], they can be better understood and treated to improve.
[[Atma]] along with the subtle [[indriya]] and [[mana]] when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, [[ayu]](life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilization of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per [[Ayurveda]], it can be understood that [[atma]] has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and [[atma]] which enters in it with [[indriya]] and [[mana]], continues till death. At the time of death, [[atma]] along with [[indriya]] and [[mana]] leaves the body. When [[atma]] realises that it is distinct from the body, [[indriya]] and [[mana]], it gets ''moksha'' (emancipation).
====Synonyms of Ayu (life)====
====Synonyms of [[Ayu]] (life)====
[[Ayu]] is described with various synonyms. Each one of them is significant and they provide understanding about different aspects about [[Ayu]]. Its synonym, ''dhari'' (the support or that which preserves and prevents decay), indicates that as long as the conjugation of these four factors continues, the living body is protected. Any threat to the existence is counteracted by protective mechanisms like the healing of wounds. As soon as there is a disjunction of these factors, death occurs and the decomposition of body starts. ''Jeevitam'' (animation) suggests that only as long as the conjugation of these factors continues, there is liveliness, responsive and sentient nature. This is lost as soon as there is disjunction. ''Nityaga'' (the flux) suggests that this conjugation of four factors is a dynamic process, a continuum. The living body keeps on undergoing changes, at every moment. ''Anubandha'' (the link) suggests that this conjugation is continued as a link every moment. It also forms a link at its beginning point with the previous life, and at the end point, with the next life.
Certain branches of ''veda'' like ''Dhanurveda'' (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like ''upanishada'' and ''aranyaka'' are beneficial for the life after death. But [[Ayurveda]] is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.
Certain branches of [[veda]] like ''Dhanurveda'' (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like ''upanishada'' and ''aranyaka'' are beneficial for the life after death. But [[Ayurveda]] is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.
===Theory of samanya and vishesha===
===Theory of [[samanya]] and [[vishesha]]===
[[Samanya]] and [[vishesha]] are pertaining to [[dravya]], [[guna]] and [[karma]]. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through [[indriya]] (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the [[buddhi]] (intelligence), which is an attribute of the [[atma]] (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as ''jnanotpatti'' (manifestation of [[knowledge]]). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is referred in the verse 45 as ''ekatva'' (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called [[samanya]] which helps us to understand similarity (''samanyam ekatvakaram''). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle [[vishesha]] due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (''prithaktvakrita''). This is the brief essence of the principle of [[Samanya]]-[[vishesha]]. This concept is also found in ''vaisheshika darshana'' (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but [[Ayurveda]] has applied this concept in practice.
Continuous use of [[dravya]], [[guna]] or [[karma]] which are similar to the body constituents, results in the increase of them. Whereas, continuous use of dissimilar [[dravya]], [[guna]] and [[karma]], result in the decrease of them/ e.g. eating the meat of animals causes an increase in the content of muscle tissue in the human body ([[dravya]] [[samanya]]). But not only this, eating of other food articles like [[masha]] (black gram) also results in an increase of muscle tissue. This happens because of the properties present in ''masha'' like ''guru'', ''picchila'', ''sthira'' etc. are similar to that of muscle tissue, although muscle tissue and black gram are different materials ([[guna]] [[samanya]]). Also, activities like rest and proper sleep induce similar properties like sthira, guru etc. which help in increase in muscle tissue ([[karma]] [[samanya]]).
These effects on the body of [[dravya]], [[guna]] and [[karma]] having [[samanya]] and [[vishesha]] can be exerted only when they are applied directly to the body (''pravrittih ubhayasya''). Also when we use any [[dravya]], [[guna]] or [[karma]], [[samanya]] and [[vishesha]] both come to action, with respect to different body constituents. E.g. [[Maricha]] (black pepper) decreases [[kapha]] and [[vata]], but at the same time increases [[pitta]]. While using food or medicines, we must understand that it will be favorable to certain body constituents, but at the same time it will be unfavorable to other constituents (''ubhayasya pravrittih''). The effects are like double edged sword. By keeping this in mind one should make appropriate use of food or medicines.
==== Contemporary view ====
It has been referred from Vaisheshika [http://https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisheshika] [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Vaiseshika_Darshana_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)] school of thought. The principle is also translated in various texts as the principle of generality and specificity, sameness and antagonism, homologous and heterologous, and similar or dissimilar. The generality (i.e.sameness, homology, similarity) unifies similar substances having similar properties and action, and specificity (i.e. particularity, antagonism, heterology, dissimilarity) denotes dissimilarity of substances. The principle is applicable in every aspect of life including human biology as well as in nature. It is also important in preservation of health and treatment of diseases. The universal significance of the principle of Samanya and Vishesha beyond [[Ayurveda]] is proved through three case studies viz. Case of family, case of climate change-induced biodiversity depletion and case of poverty reduction and access to health care by Pandey DN and Pandey NP.<ref> Pandey Deep Narayan, Pandey Neha Prakash. Universal significance of the principle of Samanya and Vishesha beyond Ayurveda.Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine.2018;9(4),308-311. available online from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0975947617305727 </ref>
It has been referred from Vaisheshika [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Vaiseshika_Darshana_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)] school of thought. The principle is also translated in various texts as the principle of generality and specificity, sameness and antagonism, homologous and heterologous, and similar or dissimilar. The generality (i.e.sameness, homology, similarity) unifies similar substances having similar properties and action, and specificity (i.e. particularity, antagonism, heterology, dissimilarity) denotes dissimilarity of substances. The principle is applicable in every aspect of life including human biology as well as in nature. It is also important in preservation of health and treatment of diseases. The universal significance of the principle of [[Samanya]] and [[Vishesha]] beyond [[Ayurveda]] is proved through three case studies viz. Case of family, case of climate change-induced biodiversity depletion and case of poverty reduction and access to [[health]] care by Pandey DN and Pandey NP.<ref> Pandey Deep Narayan, Pandey Neha Prakash. Universal significance of the principle of [[Samanya]] and [[Vishesha]] beyond Ayurveda.Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine.2018;9(4),308-311. available online from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0975947617305727 </ref>
===Basic elements===
===Basic elements===
All the objects can be classified as animate and inanimate. The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul) in specific objects. Because ''atma'' is described as ''vibhu'' (ubiquitous, i.e. present everywhere). But the presence of ''atma'' is manifested through sense organs. Therefore, presence or absence of ''indriya'' (sense organs) is taken as the base for classification of animate and inanimate objects. Sense organs here do not refer to only externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. ''Indriya'' are subtle and therefore imperceptible entities. Externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. are just their tools. E.g. plants do not exhibit external sensory organs like eyes etc., but they have all the sensations which are realised by subtle ''indriya'' present internally. It is significant to note that it was known to ancient Indians, and also to ''Ayurvedic'' [[physician]]s specially, that plants do possess sensations like photosensitivity, auditory, taste, olfactory and tactile sensation i.e. all five sensations [verse 48]
All the objects can be classified as animate and inanimate. The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of [[atma]] (soul) in specific objects. Because [[atma]] is described as ''vibhu'' (ubiquitous, i.e. present everywhere). But the presence of [[atma]] is manifested through sense organs. Therefore, presence or absence of [[indriya]] (sense organs) is taken as the base for classification of animate and inanimate objects. Sense organs here do not refer to only externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. [[Indriya]] are subtle and therefore imperceptible entities. Externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. are just their tools. E.g. plants do not exhibit external sensory organs like eyes etc., but they have all the sensations which are realized by subtle [[indriya]] present internally. It is significant to note that it was known to ancient Indians, and also to ''Ayurvedic'' [[physician]]s specially, that plants do possess sensations like photosensitivity, auditory, taste, olfactory and tactile sensation i.e. all five sensations [verse 48]
* To acquire knowledge, a person interacts with the external world. For this purpose, he mainly makes use of his five senses. In other words, the vehicles of interaction between the internal and external world are the five senses. With this view point, the external world is composed of objects of our senses. In the words of Nobel laureate Sir James Jeans (in his book ‘The New Background of Science’), matter is that which is capable of originating objective sensations. Since there are five objects of senses, the worldly objects can be categorised into five groups. From where do these five categories originate? There must be five sources of origin of these fundamental elements, the five ''mahabhutas''. ''Bhuta'' (or ''bhoota'') means anything which exists or anything which has evolved. Since everything evolved from these five (''pancha''), they are referred as ''maha'' (great) ''bhuta''(element). ''Mahabhutas'' exist in purest unconjugated, further indivisible forms termed as ''tanmatra'' in the beginning of the evolution of the universe. But eventually, they combine with each other by means of specific phenomena to form ''mahabhutas'' and then several conjugations result in formation of worldly objects. Everything in the present universe is composed of all five ''mahabhutas''. Even the so called elementary particles are composed of them. Being so subtle they cannot be perceived physically. But their existence can be inferred by observing their functions. The theory of five ''mahabhutas'' is immensely important to understand [[Ayurveda]]. This theory is being studied presently worldwide. This would be evident from the fact that during 1990s, five international seminars were held on this concept of five ''mahabhutas'' by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts in India, in which eminent scientists from international arena participated and presented their papers. E.g. the ex-chief of Atomic Commission of India, Dr. Raja Ramanna, presented a paper on ‘''Chit-Achit'' and ''Ishwar''’.
* To acquire knowledge, a person interacts with the external world. For this purpose, he mainly makes use of his five senses. In other words, the vehicles of interaction between the internal and external world are the five senses. With this view point, the external world is composed of objects of our senses. In the words of Nobel laureate Sir James Jeans (in his book ‘The New Background of Science’)<ref>Sir James Jeans. The New Background of Science. 2nd ed. Cambridge: University Press;1934. </ref>, matter is that which is capable of originating objective sensations. Since there are five objects of senses, the worldly objects can be categorized into five groups. From where do these five categories originate? There must be five sources of origin of these fundamental elements, the five [[mahabhuta]]. ''Bhuta'' (or ''bhoota'') means anything which exists or anything which has evolved. Since everything evolved from these five (''pancha''), they are referred as ''maha'' (great) ''bhuta''(element). [[mahabhuta]] exist in purest unconjugated, further indivisible forms termed as ''tanmatra'' in the beginning of the evolution of the universe. But eventually, they combine with each other by means of specific phenomena to form [[mahabhuta]] and then several conjugations result in formation of worldly objects. Everything in the present universe is composed of all five [[mahabhuta]]. Even the so called elementary particles are composed of them. Being so subtle they cannot be perceived physically. But their existence can be inferred by observing their functions. The theory of five [[mahabhuta]] is immensely important to understand [[Ayurveda]]. This theory is being studied presently worldwide. This would be evident from the fact that during 1990s, five international seminars were held on this concept of five [[mahabhuta]] by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts in India, in which eminent scientists from international arena participated and presented their papers. E.g. the ex-chief of Atomic Commission of India, Dr. Raja Ramanna, presented a paper on ‘''Chit-Achit'' and ''Ishwar''’.<ref>Ramanna R. Moksha-a critique. Available from http://eprints.nias.res.in/433/1/L2-02_Raja_Ramanna.pdf cited on 11/11/2020</ref>
* The composition of human body is studied in terms of ''mahabhutas''. ''Dosha- dhatu'' and ''mala'', which are the most important body constituents, are also composed of ''mahabhutas''. Every object in the present universe is composed of ''mahabhutas'', therefore can be used as medicine, if properly studied. The medicines therefore are administered considering their ''panchabhautika'' composition. In manufacturing of drugs also one has to understand the changes in terms of ''mahabhutas''. Thus the concept of five mahabhutas is a core fundamental concept is applicable in every field of [[Ayurveda]].
* The composition of human body is studied in terms of [[mahabhuta]]. [[Dosha]]- [[dhatu]] and [[mala]], which are the most important body constituents, are also composed of [[mahabhuta]]. Every object in the present universe is composed of [[mahabhuta]], therefore can be used as medicine, if properly studied. The medicines therefore are administered considering their ''panchabhautika'' composition. In manufacturing of drugs also one has to understand the changes in terms of [[mahabhuta]]. Thus the concept of five [[mahabhuta]] is a core fundamental concept is applicable in every field of [[Ayurveda]].
* All the activities in the living body are possible only in the presence of ''atma'' (soul). Also they are always in relation to ''dik'' (Orientation in space) and ''kala'' (season). The concept of space-time resembles with the concept of ''dik-kala''. Therefore ''atma- dik'' and ''kala'' are considered as ''nimitta karana'' (incidental cause) for every activity.
* All the activities in the living body are possible only in the presence of [[atma]] (soul). Also they are always in relation to [[dik]] (Orientation in space) and [[kala]] (time and season). The concept of space-time resembles with the concept of [[dik]]-[[kala]]. Therefore [[atma]]- [[dik]] and [[kala]] are considered as ''nimitta karana'' (incidental cause) for every activity.
* Out of the 41 ''guna'' mentioned here, ''shabda'' (sound), ''sparsha'' (touch), ''rupa'' (appearance- shape, colour, etc.), ''rasa'' (taste), ''gandha'' (smell) are termed as ''artha'', because they are the objects of senses. They are specialised characteristics of particular ''mahabhutas''. ''Guru'' etc. ''guna'' are in the form of 10 pairs of opposite characteristics. These are the ''guna'' present in the tissues of living body, therefore they are called as ''sharira'' (pertaining to body) ''guna''. They are also present in the food articles and drugs. They manifest in an object, because of specific composition of ''mahabhutas''. Therefore, they are termed as ''bhautika'' (pertaining to ''bhutas''). ''Ichcha'' (desire), ''buddhi'' (including intellect, power of resolution, memory, awareness, sense of ego), ''dvesha'' (hatred), ''sukha'' (pleasure), ''dukkha'' (pain), and ''prayatna'' (effort) are six ''guna'' that are termed as ''atma guna'' (attributes of soul). ''Para'' and ten other properties are very much important in formulating treatment, hence termed as ''chikitsya guna''.
==== [[Guna]] and [[karma]] ====
* ''Atma'' (soul) is ubiquitous. ''Prayatna'' (effort) is described as an attribute of ''atma''. An action is initiated in the presence of ''atma''. It is said that the attribute ''prayatna'' (effort) provides initiation for the action. The term ''karma'' is also used in different other sense elsewhere. E.g. it refers to [[Panchakarma]] (five specific therapies for purification of the body) and ''purvakarma'' (previous deeds of a person). To differentiate the term ''karma'' here, the word ''cheshtitam'' is used. By using the word, it is clarified that here this word is used in the sense of movements.
[[Guna]] in [[Ayurveda]] are not studied in terms of physical or chemical properties of various objects, but in terms of their effects on the living body. E.g. a food article or a drug is called as ''guru''(heavy) not as per its mass or weight. But by its property to augment body tissues. ''Ruksha'' (dry) is that which desiccates.
* Out of the 41 [[guna]] mentioned here, ''shabda'' (sound), ''sparsha'' (touch), ''rupa'' (appearance- shape, colour, etc.), ''rasa'' (taste), ''gandha'' (smell) are termed as ''artha'', because they are the objects of senses. They are specialised characteristics of particular [[mahabhuta]]. ''Guru'' etc. [[guna]] are in the form of 10 pairs of opposite characteristics. These are the [[guna]] present in the tissues of living body, therefore they are called as [[sharira]] (pertaining to body) [[guna]]. They are also present in the food articles and drugs. They manifest in an object, because of specific composition of [[mahabhuta]]. Therefore, they are termed as ''bhautika'' (pertaining to ''bhutas''). ''Ichcha'' (desire), [[buddhi]] (including intellect, power of resolution, memory, awareness, sense of ego), ''dvesha'' (hatred), ''sukha'' (pleasure), ''dukkha'' (pain), and ''prayatna'' (effort) are six [[guna]] that are termed as ''[[atma]] [[guna]]'' (attributes of soul). ''Para'' and ten other properties are very much important in formulating treatment, hence termed as ''chikitsya [[guna]]''.
* [[Atma]] (soul) is ubiquitous. ''Prayatna'' (effort) is described as an attribute of [[atma]]. An action is initiated in the presence of [[atma]]. It is said that the attribute ''prayatna'' (effort) provides initiation for the action. The term [[karma]] is also used in different other sense elsewhere. E.g. it refers to [[Panchakarma]] (five specific therapies for purification of the body) and ''purva karma'' (previous deeds of a person). To differentiate the term [[karma]] here, the word ''cheshtitam'' is used. By using the word, it is clarified that here this word is used in the sense of movements.
===Rasa (taste sensations)===
==== [[Samavaya]] (Inseparable concomitance)====
[[Samavaya]] is the inherent inseparable concomitance of [[prithvi]] etc. ([[dravya]]) with their [[guṇa]] (properties) and [[karma]] (actions). This relationship is inseparable, because [[dravya]] and [[guna]]-[[karma]] evolve together. If a [[dravya]] is destroyed, [[guna]]-[[karma]] cannot exist and vice a versa. [[Dravya]], [[guna]]-[[karma]] evolve and get destroyed, and are replaced by newer ones, but their relationship never changes. Whenever a [[dravya]] exists, it is never devoid of [[guna]]-[[karma]]. In this sense, it is said that [[samavaya]] is eternal. Out of the six categories of existents, [[dravya]], [[guna]] and [[karma]] actually exist. But if their mutual relationship is not there, none of them can exist. Therefore, [[samavaya]] is the base of existence for everything. [verse 50]
=== [[Mahabhuta]] and [[dosha]]===
===Four objectives of life ===
The present universe is composed of five [[mahabhuta]]. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five [[mahabhuta]] form three groups. Functions of [[prithvi]] and [[apa]] are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way [[akasha]] and [[vayu]] form a group. [[Agni]] keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, desiccation, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as [[visarga]](producing/creating), [[adana]](reducing/taking away) and [[vikshepa]](moving). These activities are performed by the group of [[prithvi]]- [[apa]], [[agni]] and [[akasha]]-[[vayu]] respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' ([[Agni]], fire or Sun) and Anila ([[Vayu]] or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as [[kapha]], [[pitta]] and [[vata]] respectively. They are called as the three [[dosha]]. [[Ayurveda]] studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three [[dosha]]. This system of three [[dosha]], is very important practically for each [[physician]]. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successful treatment. While a [[physician]] having in-depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three [[dosha]] i.e. [[Tridosha]] is very much important to understand [[Ayurveda]].
=== [[Rasa]] (taste sensations)===
Every [[dravya]] in the present universe is composed of specific mode of conjugation of all five [[mahabhuta]]. [[Rasa]] (taste) is a specialized property of [[apa]] [[mahabhuta]]. When [[apa]] [[mahabhuta]] is in ''tanmatra'' (purest unconjugated form) state, it does not possess taste. When it comes in contact with [[prithvi]], the taste is formed. The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to a combination of other three [[Mahabhuta]] like [[akasha]], [[vayu]] and [[tejas]]. [verse 64]
Although the term [[rasa]] apparently refers to six tastes like sweet, sour etc., but here the effects of the drugs with those tastes on the living body are given more importance. E.g. by saying that a particular drug is having [[madhura]] [[rasa]], it is expected that not only that the drug will have sweet taste, but more than that it will have specific effects like nourishing body tissues, wholesome for hair etc. Any drug having such effects on the body is said to possess [[madhura]] [[rasa]].
=== Four objectives of life ===
What is the purpose of life? What goals is one expected to achieve by living? These questions come to the mind of any wise person. The same is discussed by various Indian and world philosophies. As per Vedic traditions, ''dharma'' (righteousness or rules to lead a virtuous life), ''artha'' (wealth), ''kama'' (desires or enjoyments), and ''moksha'' (emancipation) are the four goals of life. Fulfillment of various desires and enjoyment is a fundamental goal of any human being and comes instinctively. For this, one requires wealth. ''Dharma'' is a set of rules or guidelines for good personal life and also for the whole society. The absence of ''dharma'' would only result in anarchy and violence. Therefore, ''dharma'' is essential. All the enjoyments are momentary. Every pleasure is followed by sorrow and vice versa. So one thinks of a state of permanent bliss, totally devoid of any sorrow or pain. Therefore, the concept of ''moksha'' (emancipation) is relevant. Here it is emphasized that without sound health one cannot achieve these goals. It is further emphasized, that one has to maintain a perfect balance between ''dharma, artha'' and ''kama'' in order to attain ''moksha''.
What is the purpose of life? What goals is one expected to achieve by living? These questions come to the mind of any wise person. The same is discussed by various Indian and world philosophies. As per Vedic traditions, ''dharma'' (righteousness or rules to lead a virtuous life), ''artha'' (wealth), ''kama'' (desires or enjoyments), and ''moksha'' (emancipation) are the four goals of life. Fulfillment of various desires and enjoyment is a fundamental goal of any human being and comes instinctively. For this, one requires wealth. ''Dharma'' is a set of rules or guidelines for good personal life and also for the whole society. The absence of ''dharma'' would only result in anarchy and violence. Therefore, ''dharma'' is essential. All the enjoyments are momentary. Every pleasure is followed by sorrow and vice versa. So one thinks of a state of permanent bliss, totally devoid of any sorrow or pain. Therefore, the concept of ''moksha'' (emancipation) is relevant. Here it is emphasized that without sound health one cannot achieve these goals. It is further emphasized, that one has to maintain a perfect balance between ''dharma, artha'' and ''kama'' in order to attain ''moksha''.
=== Classification of drugs ===
=== Classification of drugs ===
[[Rasa]], [[guna]], [[veerya]] and [[vipaka]] are important properties present in a [[dravya]]. They can be identified by specific methods. But due to specific arrangements of [[mahabhuta]], which causes specific transformations, a [[dravya]] is possessing unique property termed as [[prabhava]]. [[Mahabhuta]] being very subtle and unobservable with our senses, their conjugations or transformations can’t be readily understood. So [[prabhava]] is inexplicable. But it is understood based on the effects produced by it. Drugs can be classified on various parameters, based on [[prabhava]] also various classifications are possible. Here a gross classification based on three most important effects of [[prabhava]] is mentioned.
==== [[Dosha]] [[prashamana]] (pacification)====
[[Dosha]] [[prashamana]] are the drugs which bring back the equilibrium of [[dosha]]. [[Amalaki]] and [[duralabha]] pacify all the three [[dosha]] as well as correct the function of [[dhatu]]. [[Amalaki]] pacifies [[vata]] due to [[madhura]] [[amla]] [[rasa]] and [[madhura]] [[vipaka]], [[pitta]] due to [[madhura]] [[tikta]] [[kashaya]] [[rasa]] and [[sheeta]] [[veerya]], [[kapha]] due to [[katu]]-[[tikta]] –[[kashaya]] [[rasa]] and [[guna]] like [[ruksha]], [[laghu]]. This explanation of the mode of action of [[amalaki]] on three [[dosha]] is true. But question arises why with the same set of properties, different actions are not possible like vitiation of [[kapha]] with [[madhura]]-[[amla]] [[rasa]], [[madhura]] [[vipaka]] and [[sheeta]] [[veerya]]. So there must be some other factor also influencing the actions. This factor is [[prabhava]]. The drugs with [[dosha]] [[prashamana]] [[prabhava]] always only pacify the [[dosha]] and never vitiate them, whereas the drugs with [[dhatu]] [[pradushana]] [[prabhava]] always vitiate, never pacify.
====[[Dhatu]] [[pradushana]] (vitiating [[dhatu]])====
There are some substances which by their very nature harm the body e.g. ''mandaka dadhi'' (immature curd/yogurt), slow and acute poisons etc.
==== [[Swasthavritta]] hita (maintaining [[health]])====
[[Ayurveda]] in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as ''bhavana'' (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat ''ama'' conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical [[Ayurveda]] does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.
The substances which help in maintaining, promotion and preservation of the health of the healthy persons are [[swasthavritta]] hitakara. [[Rasayana]] and [[vajikarana]] as well as daily and seasonal regimens etc. are belonging to this group. Red rice, old rice, wheat, barley, green gram etc. are good for daily use to maintain and promote health. The primary function of the substances under this category is to maintain the equilibrium of the [[dosha]] so that they are neither increased/aggravated nor decreased. Thus they help normal functioning of the body. [verse 67]
====Use of herbal medicines ====
[[Ayurveda]] in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as ''bhavana'' (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat [[ama]] conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical [[Ayurveda]] does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.
====Use of minerals ====
''Samalah'' indicates byproducts such as bitumen. Salt, minerals and alkaline products obtained from earth are also included in this group. Minerals and metals obtained from earth are first subjected to purification and then converting to nano particles (''bhasma'') by the various methods described separately for each product. The metals are subjected to anaerobic incinerating processes to convert it into ''bhasma'' which is nano form of the metal. Thus the earth-products becomes free from side effects of the gross metal and very potent and cures many diseases when administered with specific decoctions. It also reduces the bulk of doses of the herbal substances when mixed with these ''bhasma''. [Verse 70]
==== Classification of plant origin drugs ====
Plant origin drugs are classified in four groups viz. ''vanaspati'' (direct fruiters), ''virudha'' (creepers), ''vanaspatya'' (flower-based fruiters) and [[aushadhi]] (herbs).
*''Vanaspati'' (direct fruiters): There are some plants which bear fruits without visible flowers.
*''Vanaspati'' (direct fruiters): There are some plants which bear fruits without visible flowers.
*''Virudha'' (creepers): The plants which spread with branches are ''virudha'' e.g. ''guduchi''
*''Virudha'' (creepers): The plants which spread with branches are ''virudha'' e.g. [[Guduchi]]
*''Vanaspatya'' (flower-based or flowering fruiters): The plants of this group bear first visible flowers and then fruits.
*''Vanaspatya'' (flower-based or flowering fruiters): The plants of this group bear first visible flowers and then fruits.
*''Aushadhi'' (herbs): The plants which die out after bearing the fruits are ''aushadha'' e.g. wheat, paddy, barley, lentils etc (Verse 71-72).
*''Aushadhi'' (herbs): The plants which die out after bearing the fruits are ''aushadha'' e.g. wheat, paddy, barley, lentils etc. (Verse 71-72).
* Fruits of both the types of ''klitaka'' (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.) are most useful for purgation, though Sushruta mentions use of its root generally. Only autumnal fruits of ''hastiparini'' are most useful. Sushruta advises use of leaves of ''aragvadha'' (Cassia fistula Linn.) for purgation but in the present context, its fruits are mentioned because they are useful (80-86).
* Fruits of both the types of ''klitaka'' (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.) are most useful for purgation, though Sushruta mentions use of its root generally. Only autumnal fruits of ''hastiparini'' are most useful. Sushruta advises use of leaves of [[aragvadha]] (Cassia fistula Linn.) for purgation but in the present context, its fruits are mentioned because they are useful [Verses 80-86].
==== [[Mahasneha]] ====
Ghee is the most important unctuous substance among various types of unctuous substances, because it possesses an unique quality of absorbing the properties of processed drugs without losing its own properties. Therefore ghee is the best media for processing drugs. Edible oil (taila), muscle fat (vasa) and marrow (majja) are other substances used in [[snehana]] (unction) therapy. [Verses 87-88]
==== Salts ====
[[Saindhava]] (rock salt) is very useful among all salts, but here ''sauvarchala'' (sochal salt) is listed first because of its most palatable taste. Otherwise sochal salt comes only after [[saindhava]] in order of priority. [Verses 89-92]
==== Animal urine ====
Urine from the female species of various animals have generally been advised for therapeutic purposes because they are considered light. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 27/238] Some commentators ascribe heaviness to males with ''shukra'' and lightness of urine due to dissociation of female with ''shukra'' but it is not acceptable as females are not completely devoid of [[shukra dhatu]]. So in a nutshell, urine of female animals serves as efficacious in treating the many diseases. Next in order comes urine of male species. The urine of an impotent animal is considered inauspicious and thus not mentioned. [Verses 93-105]
==== Milk ====
Sweetness, nourishment, unctuousness, and coolness are the general properties of the milk, but milk of some animals may differ in this regard. For instance, milk of she-camel is slightly saline in taste while she-goat is astringent. Similarly, milk of a she-camel also differs in properties as it is rough and hot. Hence the specific properties mentioned of the individual milk should also be considered in this regard. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 27/217-224] Milk is beneficial for mental faculties due to its specific action and also due to its general nourishing property which includes the proper growth of the mental faculties also and not the mind itself which is eternal.
Milk is beneficial for certain states or conditions of [[raktapitta]] (bleeding disorders) as it is mentioned that even if after administration of the various decoctions, stimulation of digestive power and pacification of [[kapha]]. [[Raktapitta]] not cured indicates [[vata]] predominance and in such conditions the milk of a she-goat or of a cow, boiled with five times its volume of water is advised. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 4/82-83] Thus, it is not correct to say that milk is harmful for ''adhoga'' and ''urdhvaga raktapitta'' due to laxative and [[kapha]] vitiating properties respectively. Milk is, of course, useful in [[raktapitta]] only at a certain stage. [Verses 105-113]
==== Plants for purification therapy ====
[[Krishnagandha]] is included in the list of [[shodhana]] drugs though it has no elimination action. It seems this drug is included in the list owing to its external purification action and application as paste. [Verses 116-119]
=== Local sources of identification of plants ===
Local people such as goat-herders, sheep-herders, cow-herder and other forest dwellers are generally well versed with identification of the local herbs. Therefore, the beginner may take their help of these people for identification of the plants available in their areas. However, mere knowing the name and form of the plant is not sufficient and one must know their pharmacological properties, therapeutic actions and underlying principle of its application. Hence the best [[physician]] is the one who is well acquainted with drugs in their entirely. [Verses 120-123]
=== Importance of complete [[knowledge]] of medicines ===
To become a successful [[physician]], it is very necessary to acquaint with identification of the drug material as well as to know detail pharmacological and therapeutic properties and actions of the drug. [[Physician]] should use only those drugs which are well known from every aspect (pharmacological effect). The unknown drug may act as poison and kill the patient. Therefore, if a [[physician]] knows all the three aspects viz., names, forms and properties of drugs can treat the patients successfully. Hence the patient should not take medicine from pseudo-[[physician]]s and similarly a [[physician]] should not prescribe a drug which is not well known. [Verses 124-133]
=== Quality assurance in healthcare ===
Correct drug and knowledgeable [[physician]]s are the two important pillars of successful treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to know the qualities of correct medicine and a good [[physician]]. The drugs having all the requisite properties and actions required for cure a particular disease is considered as the proper drug. For a good [[physician]], it is necessary to have all the knowledge of the principles underlying the correct application of medicines. Sometimes a randomly prescribed medicine by a pseudo [[physician]] also succeeds in alleviating disease and in that case the credit is not his but it is just accidental. Thus, only that [[physician]] is best who has proficiency in the principle governing the use of a drug, knows all the aspects of the medicine to select and thus has the capability of curing the diseases. [Verse 134]
=== Cause-effect principle of [[ayurveda]] ===
[[Ayurveda]] has a very scientific principle of ''karya-karana vada'' which says every action (''karya'') has its specific cause (''karana''). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the [[physician]] is proficient in [[Ayurveda]] and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in ''Khuddaka chatushpada''. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] l0/ 6] [Verse 135]
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