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Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya (view source)

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|title=Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya

|titlemode=append

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|keywords=Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], ''Samanya'' (similarity), Vishesha''(dissimilarity), ''Guna'', ''Karma'', ''Rasa'', ''Dosha'', ''Vata'', ''Pitta'', ''Kapha'', ''Rajas'', ''Tamas'', ''Sattva'', qualities of good and bad ~~physicians~~, charak samhita Ayurveda, Indian system of medicine,[[dravya]], [[panchamahabhuta]]

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|keywords=Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], ''Samanya'' (similarity), Vishesha''(dissimilarity), ''Guna'', ''Karma'', ''Rasa'', ''Dosha'', ''Vata'', ''Pitta'', ''Kapha'', ''Rajas'', ''Tamas'', ''Sattva'', qualities of good and bad [[physician]]s, charak samhita Ayurveda, Indian system of medicine,[[dravya]], [[panchamahabhuta]]

|description=The first chapter within Bheshaja Chatushka (tetrad constituting four chapters on medicinal treatment) deals with fundamental concepts of [[Ayurveda]] related to longevity

|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg

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The title of [[Charak Samhita]]’s the very first chapter, [[Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya]], literally means the chapter on longevity. This is symbolic, because it implies that [[Ayurveda]] is not merely the science of life, but also a science of longevity. This chapter deliberates on the purpose of long [[life]] and [[health]] as the means of achieving the four primary instincts of human beings (purushartha chatustaya). These are virtue (dharma), wealth (artha), gratification (kama) and emancipation(moksha). Some of the basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and its scope are explained. The chapter introduces fundamental principles of [[Ayurveda]], including its definition, objective, concept of three [[sharira]](bodily) [[dosha]] and their qualities, and two [[manasa]] (mental) [[dosha]] and their treatment. The theory of similarity ([[samanya]]) and dissimilarity ([[vishesha]]), pharmaco-therapeutic aspects, classification of drugs, list of herbs and other animal products useful in purification and pacification therapies are highlighted. Through these deliberations, this chapter essentially lays the foundation for building the body of knowledge on life sciences and healthcare that [[Charak Samhita]] is known for.

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'''Keywords''': Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], [[Samanya]](similarity), [[Vishesha]](dissimilarity), [[dravya]], [[panchamahabhuta]], [[Guna]], [[Karma]], [[Rasa]], [[Dosha]], [[Vata]], [[Pitta]], [[Kapha]], [[Rajas]], [[Tamas]], [[Sattva]], qualities of good and bad ~~physicians~~, medical ethics.

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'''Keywords''': Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], [[Samanya]](similarity), [[Vishesha]](dissimilarity), [[dravya]], [[panchamahabhuta]], [[Guna]], [[Karma]], [[Rasa]], [[Dosha]], [[Vata]], [[Pitta]], [[Kapha]], [[Rajas]], [[Tamas]], [[Sattva]], qualities of good and bad [[physician]]s, medical ethics.

==Introduction==

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The process of origin/emergence of [[Ayurveda]] (ayurvedavatarana) as described in this chapter should be viewed from this perspective, symbolic of this iterative process of creation of knowledge. It touches upon certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] such as the four dimensional concept of [[ayu]] or [[life]] and its qualitative categorization into ''sukhayu'' (happy life), ''duhkhayu'' (unhappy life), ''hitayu'' (positive life in harmony with self and the surroundings), and ''ahitayu''(negative life, with negative state of mind and in disharmony with the surroundings), reflecting on the individual as well as the social aspects of one’s life. The chapter also deals with the doctrine of [[samanya]] (similar) and [[vishesha]] (dissimilar), [[dravya]] ''samgraha'' (knowledge of physical material), attributes of physical and mental [[dosha]], the basic causes of ill-health, the origin of [[rasa]] (taste) and its significance, the attributes of six tastes, the nature of the material world, and the whole range of ayurvedic materia medica. Overall, as one can expect from the very first chapter of any treatise, this chapter gives guidelines about important fundamental concepts of [[Ayurveda]] that are necessary to understand the whole text.

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It is very important for a physician to have the full knowledge of materials used in formulating ''Ayurvedic'' drugs. For this purpose, the chapter provides a detailed taxonomy of groups of medications (or recipes), including properties and actions of each ingredient within a group. To zero in from the generic to the specific, the entire “universe” of ingredients are classified into three groups: those that are useful for maintaining good health, those that are useful for treating disorders, and finally, those that are harmful to health. The first two categories, i.e., ingredients useful for health and for treating the diseases have been described by further dividing them into various ways with categorization by three general sources viz. animal-based, plant-based, and earth/mineral-based. Plant-based ingredients are further sub-classified according to their parts used viz. fruits, roots, latex and bark, with relevant examples that are further subdivided according to their applicability in therapeutics e.g. useful for [[vamana]] (therapeutic emesis), [[virechana]] (therapeutic purgation) or [[basti]] (therapeutic enema). The specific actions of the individual ingredients of such groups which may not find place in later chapters have been described herein e.g. five types of salts and eight types of urine.

+

It is very important for a [[physician]] to have the full knowledge of materials used in formulating ''Ayurvedic'' drugs. For this purpose, the chapter provides a detailed taxonomy of groups of medications (or recipes), including properties and actions of each ingredient within a group. To zero in from the generic to the specific, the entire “universe” of ingredients are classified into three groups: those that are useful for maintaining good health, those that are useful for treating disorders, and finally, those that are harmful to health. The first two categories, i.e., ingredients useful for health and for treating the diseases have been described by further dividing them into various ways with categorization by three general sources viz. animal-based, plant-based, and earth/mineral-based. Plant-based ingredients are further sub-classified according to their parts used viz. fruits, roots, latex and bark, with relevant examples that are further subdivided according to their applicability in therapeutics e.g. useful for [[vamana]] (therapeutic emesis), [[virechana]] (therapeutic purgation) or [[basti]] (therapeutic enema). The specific actions of the individual ingredients of such groups which may not find place in later chapters have been described herein e.g. five types of salts and eight types of urine.

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The chapter suggests that [[Ayurveda]] beginners may take the help of local people or communities living in or around forests and herders in identifying herbs. Charak denounces quackery or ayurvedic practitioners with little or limited knowledge of plants and considers that the best physician is the one who has full knowledge of ayurvedic drugs, their pharmacology, mode of administration and their use according to the condition of the patient. Exploitation of a helpless patient by a physician is considered a sin in [[Ayurveda]].

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The chapter suggests that [[Ayurveda]] beginners may take the help of local people or communities living in or around forests and herders in identifying herbs. Charak denounces quackery or ayurvedic practitioners with little or limited knowledge of plants and considers that the best [[physician]] is the one who has full knowledge of ayurvedic drugs, their pharmacology, mode of administration and their use according to the condition of the patient. Exploitation of a helpless patient by a [[physician]] is considered a sin in [[Ayurveda]].

In summary, this first chapter of [[Ayurveda]] provides, for someone aspiring to become an ''Ayurvedic'' practitioner, a foundational course that teaches not only the basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]], but also the foundational principles and practices for leading a long and healthy life.

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Animal origin drugs - Honey, milk, bile, animal-fat, bone-marrow, blood, flesh, excrements, urine, skin, semen, bone, ligaments, horns, nails, hoof, hair, down (fine soft dense hair) and inspissated bile - are substances obtained from animals [68-69].

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Animal origin drugs - Honey, milk, bile, animal-fat, bone-marrow, blood, flesh, excrements, urine, skin, semen, bone, ligaments, horns, nails, hoof, hair, down (fine soft dense hair) and inspissated bile - are substances obtained from animals. [68-69]

</div>

====Earth origin drugs ====

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Drugs obtained from earth are gold, five metals (silver, copper, tin, lead and iron) along with their by-products such as ''shilajatu'' (bitumen), sand, lime, red and yellow arsenic (''manahshila'' and ''hartala''), gems, salt, red ochre and antimony.

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Plant origin drugs: Plant origin drugs are of four types viz. direct fruiters, creepers, flower based fruiters and herbs [70-71].

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Plant origin drugs: Plant origin drugs are of four types viz. direct fruiters, creepers, flower based fruiters and herbs. [70-71]

</div>

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The plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as ''vanaspati'' (Gymno-spermia). The plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as ''vanaspatya'' (angio-spermia). The plants which die out after flowering are known as ~~''aushadha''~~ (annuals). The plants which creep or twine are known as ''virudha'' (creepers) [72]

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The plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as ''vanaspati'' (Gymno-spermia). The plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as ''vanaspatya'' (angio-spermia). The plants which die out after flowering are known as [[aushadhi]] (annuals). The plants which creep or twine are known as ''virudha'' (creepers) [72]

</div>

====Plant’s parts used as drugs ====

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</div></div>

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The roots bark, pith, exudation, stalk, juice, sprouts, alkalis, latex, fruits, flowers, ash, oil, thorns, leaves, buds, bulbs and off-shoots of the plants are used as drugs [73-73.5]

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The roots bark, pith, exudation, stalk, juice, sprouts, alkalis, latex, fruits, flowers, ash, oil, thorns, leaves, buds, bulbs and off-shoots of the plants are used as drugs. [73-73.5]

=== Classifications of drugs based on their various forms and applications ===

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Per the school of Punarvasu (Lord Atreya), roots of 16 plants and fruits of 19 plants are used as drugs. Similarly, principal unctuous (''mahasneha'') substances are of four types and main salts are of five types. Urine and milk for medicinal purposes are obtained from 8 different animals and six plants are used for purification (''shodhana''). The physician who knows how to use all these materials for curing the disease is the expert physician [74-76].

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Per the school of Punarvasu (Lord Atreya), roots of 16 plants and fruits of 19 plants are used as drugs. Similarly, principal unctuous ([[mahasneha]]) substances are of four types and main salts are of five types. Urine and milk for medicinal purposes are obtained from 8 different animals and six plants are used for purification ([[shodhana]]). The [[physician]] who knows how to use all these materials for curing the [[disease]] is the expert [[physician]]. [74-76]

</div>

====Sixteen roots used for [[shodhana]] (purification):====

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The roots of 16 plants whose roots are used for shodhana are Hastidanti (Brihatphala,Godumba- Croton oblongifolius), Haimavati (Vacha-Acorus calamus), Shyama Trivrit (Operculina turpenthum Linn.) , Adhoguda (Vriddha daru - Argyreia speciosa Sweet.), Saptala ( Charmakasha-Euphorbia pilosa), Shvetanama (Shweta aparajita -Clitoria ternatea), Pratyakshreni (Danti -Baliospermum montanum Muell.-Arg), Gavakshi (Indravaruni- Cirrullus colocynthis Schrad), Jyotishmati (Celastrus panniculatus Willd.), Bimbi (Coccinia indica W. & A.), Shanapushpi (Crotalaria verrucosa Linn.), Vishanika (Aavartani - Helicteres isora Linn.), Ajagandha , Dravanti (Croton tiglium Linn.) and Kshirini (dugdhika- Euphorbia thymifolia Linn.).

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The roots of 16 plants whose roots are used for [[shodhana]] are [[Hastidanti]] (Brihatphala,Godumba- Croton oblongifolius), [[Haimavati]] (Vacha-Acorus calamus), [[Shyama Trivrit]] (Operculina turpenthum Linn.) , [[Adhoguda]] (Vriddha daru - Argyreia speciosa Sweet.), [[Saptala]] ( Charmakasha-Euphorbia pilosa), [[Shvetanama]] (Shweta aparajita -Clitoria ternatea), [[Pratyakshreni]] (Danti -Baliospermum montanum Muell.-Arg), [[Gavakshi]] (Indravaruni- Cirrullus colocynthis Schrad), [[Jyotishmati]] (Celastrus panniculatus Willd.), [[Bimbi]] (Coccinia indica W. & A.), [[Shanapushpi]] (Crotalaria verrucosa Linn.), [[Vishanika]] (Aavartani - Helicteres isora Linn.), [[Ajagandha]] , [[Dravanti]] (Croton tiglium Linn.) and [[Kshirini]] (dugdhika- Euphorbia thymifolia Linn.).

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Out of these Shanapushpi (Crotalaria verrucosa Linn.), Bimbi (Coccinia indica W. & A.) and Haimavati (Vacha-Acorus calamus) are used for therapeutic emesis ([[vamana]]). Shveta(Clitoria ternatea) and Jyotishmati (Celastrus panniculatus Willd.) are used for intra nasal administration ([[nasya]]) . The remaining 11 drugs are used for therapeutic purgation ([[virechana]]).[77-80]

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Out of these [[Shanapushpi]] (Crotalaria verrucosa Linn.), [[Bimbi]] (Coccinia indica W. & A.) and [[Haimavati]] (Vacha-Acorus calamus) are used for therapeutic emesis ([[vamana]]). [[Shveta]](Clitoria ternatea) and [[Jyotishmati]] (Celastrus panniculatus Willd.) are used for intra nasal administration ([[nasya]]) . The remaining 11 drugs are used for therapeutic purgation ([[virechana]]).[77-80]

</div>

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====Fruits used for ''shodhana'' (purification therapy) ====

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====Fruits used for [[shodhana]] (purification therapy) ====

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''Pratyakpushpa'' is used for ''nasya karma''. The remaining 10 drugs are useful for ''virechana karma''. Thus the names and main actions of 19 fruiters have been described [81-85.5].

</div>

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====Four major unctuous substances====

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====Four major unctuous substances ([[mahasneha]])====

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</div></div>

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Ghee, oil, animal-fat and bone-marrow are the four major unctuous substances. These are used after preparing with other drugs for potion, inunction, medicated enema and errhine (''nasya'') therapy [86].

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Ghee, oil, animal-fat and bone-marrow are the four major unctuous substances([[mahasneha]]). These are used after preparing with other drugs for potion, inunction, medicated enema and errhine ([[nasya]]) therapy [86].

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====General actions of unctuous substances ====

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=====General actions of unctuous substances =====

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</div></div>

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The unctuous substances produce oiliness, vitality, complexion, strength and growth in the body and provide relief in ''vata'', ''pitta'' and ''kapha'' [87-87.5]

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The unctuous substances produce oiliness, vitality, complexion, strength and growth in the body and provide relief in [[vata]], [[pitta]] and [[kapha]]. [87-87.5]

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==== Five ~~salts~~ ====

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==== Five [[salt]] ====

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</div></div>

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Five principal salts are black/sochal salt (''sauvarchala''), rock salt (''saindhava''), ammonium chloride (''vid''), earth/efflorescence salt (''audbhid'') and sea salt (''samudra''). They are unctuous, hot, sharp/acute and foremost in digestive-stimulants [88-89].

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Five principal salts are black/sochal [[salt]] (''sauvarchala''), rock salt (''saindhava''), ammonium chloride (''vid''), earth/efflorescence salt (''audbhid'') and sea salt (''samudra''). They are unctuous, hot, sharp/acute and foremost in digestive-stimulants. [88-89]

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==== Utility of ~~salts~~ ====

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===== Utility of [[salt]] =====

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Salts are used for external applications (''alepa''), oleation, sudation, in emesis and purgation preparations, in evacuation and unctuous types of enemata preparations, inunction and errhine therapy; in surgical operations, suppository, collyrium, friction massage and as a food. It is indicated in indigestion, constipation, disorders of ''vata'', ''gulma'', colic and abdominal diseases. Thus, salts have been described [90-91.5]

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Salts are used for external applications ([[alepa]]), oleation, sudation, in emesis and purgation preparations, in evacuation and unctuous types of enemata preparations, inunction and errhine therapy; in surgical operations, suppository, collyrium, friction massage and as a food. It is indicated in indigestion, constipation, disorders of [[vata]], [[gulma]], colic and abdominal diseases. Thus, salts have been described. [90-91.5]

</div>

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==== Eight important varieties of urine ====

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==== Eight important varieties of [[urine]] ====

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</div></div>

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Eight principal urines described by the Atreya School for medicinal use are urine of ewe, she-goat, cow, she-buffalo, elephant, she-camel, mare and she-donkey [92-93]

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Eight principal urines described by the Atreya School for medicinal use are urine of ewe, she-goat, cow, she-buffalo, elephant, she-camel, mare and she-donkey. [92-93]

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===== General properties and external uses of urine =====

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===== General properties and external uses of [[urine]] =====

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</div></div>

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Generally, urines have hot, acute and non-dry actions, are pungent and salty in taste and are used for frictional massage and external applications (''alepa'') [94].

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Generally, urines have hot, acute and non-dry actions, are pungent and salty in taste and are used for frictional massage and external applications ([[alepa]]). [94]

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=====Internal uses of urine =====

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===== Internal uses of urine =====

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Urines are also used in the preparations of evacuator enema, purgatives, poultice (''upanaha'') and affusion (''parisheka'') as well as in antidote (''agada'') preparations. It is indicated in afflictions such as retention of feces, urine and flatulence (''anaha''), generalized enlargement of abdomen (''udara ~~roga''~~), ''gulma'', piles, dermatosis (''kushtha'') and leukoderma [95-96.5]

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Urines are also used in the preparations of evacuator enema, purgatives, poultice ([[upanaha]]) and affusion ([[parisheka]]) as well as in antidote ([[agada]]) preparations. It is indicated in afflictions such as retention of feces, urine and flatulence ([[anaha]]), generalized enlargement of abdomen ([[udara]]), [[gulma]], piles, dermatosis ([[kushtha]]) and leukoderma. [95-96.5]

</div>

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</div></div>

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Urines have been prescribed as digestive stimulants, antidotes to poison and as vermicides. They are excellent for the treatment of persons suffering from ''pandu'' (anemia) [97.5]

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Urines have been prescribed as digestive stimulants, antidotes to poison and as vermicides. They are excellent for the treatment of persons suffering from [[pandu]] (anemia). [97.5]

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Oral intake of urine pacifies ''kapha'', regulates peristaltic movement of ''vata'' and evacuates morbid ''pitta'' through lower channels. General properties and actions of urine thus have been described. Now they will be described individually [98-99]

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Oral intake of urine pacifies [[kapha]], regulates peristaltic movement of [[vata]] and evacuates morbid [[pitta]] through lower channels. General properties and actions of urine thus have been described. Now they will be described individually. [98-99]

</div>

=====Properties of urine of ewe and goat =====

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</div></div>

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The urine of cow is slightly sweet, alleviates discordance of dosha and cures worms and chronic dermatoses (''kushtha'') and relieves ~~pruritis~~. Its proper intake cures disorders of abdomen [101]

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The urine of cow is slightly sweet, alleviates discordance of [[dosha]] and cures worms and chronic dermatoses ([[kushtha]]) and relieves itching. Its proper intake cures disorders of abdomen. [101]

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=====Properties of urine of buffalo and elephant =====

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=====Properties of [[urine]] of buffalo and elephant =====

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The urine of buffalo provides relief in piles, edema and disorders leading to general enlargement of abdomen (''udara ~~roga''~~). The urine of she-elephant is salty and provides relief in worms and dermatoses (''kushtha''). It is also useful in the treatment of retention of feces and urine, poisoning, ''kapha'' disorders and piles [102.5]

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The urine of buffalo provides relief in piles, edema and disorders leading to general enlargement of abdomen ([[udara]]). The urine of she-elephant is salty and provides relief in worms and dermatoses ([[kushtha]]). It is also useful in the treatment of retention of feces and urine, poisoning, [[kapha]] disorders and piles. [102.5]

</div>

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=====Properties of urine of she-camel =====

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=====Properties of [[urine]] of she-camel =====

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</div></div>

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The urine of she-camel is slightly bitter and provides relief in breathlessness, cough and piles [103].

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The urine of she-camel is slightly bitter and provides relief in breathlessness, cough and piles. [103]

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=====Properties of urine of mare and she-donkey =====

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=====Properties of [[urine]] of mare and she-donkey =====

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Urine of mare is bitter and pungent in taste and provides relief in dermatoses (''kushtha''), wounds and poisoning.

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Urine of mare is bitter and pungent in taste and provides relief in dermatoses ([[kushtha]]), wounds and poisoning.

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Urine of she-donkey provides relief in epilepsy, major psychosis and severe chronic psychosomatic diseases (''graha'') of children.

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Urine of she-donkey provides relief in epilepsy, major psychosis and severe chronic psychosomatic diseases ([[graha]]) of children.

Thus described were the medicinal properties and action of eight types of urine. [104].

</div>

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=====Eight important varieties of milk =====

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=====Eight important varieties of [[milk]] =====

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</div></div>

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Henceforth properties and actions of (eight types) milk are being described.

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Henceforth properties and actions of (eight types) [[milk]] are being described.

The milks of sheep, goat, cow, buffalo, camel, elephant, mare and woman are used for medicinal purposes. [105-106]

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====General properties and actions of milk====

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====General properties and actions of [[milk]]====

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</div></div>

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Generally, milk is sweet, unctuous, cooling, galactagogue, pleasing, aphrodisiac, brain tonic (''medhya'', which increases intelligence), strengthening, exhilarating, vitalizing, refreshing; curative to dyspnea, cough, bleeding, synthesizer in injuries/fracture; wholesome to all living creatures, pacifies and evacuates the [[dosha]], quenches the thirst, stimulates the digestion and very useful in emaciation due to lung ulcer [107-109].

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Generally, [[milk]] is sweet, unctuous, cooling, galactagogue, pleasing, aphrodisiac, brain tonic ([[medhya]], which increases intelligence), strengthening, exhilarating, vitalizing, refreshing; curative to dyspnea, cough, bleeding, synthesizer in injuries/fracture; wholesome to all living creatures, pacifies and evacuates the [[dosha]], quenches the thirst, stimulates the digestion and very useful in emaciation due to lung ulcer. [107-109]

</div>

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=====General indications of milk =====

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=====General indications of [[milk]] =====

पाण्डुरोगेऽम्लपित्ते च शोषे गुल्मे तथोदरे|

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</div></div>

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Milk is indicated in ''pandu''(anemia), ''amlapitta'' (acid dyspepsia), consumption, ''gulma'' and ''udara ~~roga''~~ (generalized enlargement of abdomen), diarrhea, fever, burning sensation, particularly in edema, vaginal and seminal disorders, oliguria and hard stools. It is wholesome to disorders of ''vata'' and ''pitta'' [110-111].

+

[[Milk]] is indicated in [[pandu]](anemia), [[amlapitta]] (acid dyspepsia), consumption, [[gulma]] and [[udara]] (generalized enlargement of abdomen), diarrhea, fever, burning sensation, particularly in edema, vaginal and seminal disorders, oliguria and hard stools. It is wholesome to disorders of [[vata]] and [[pitta]]. [110-111]

</div>

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=====Pharmaceutical uses of milk =====

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=====Pharmaceutical uses of [[milk]] =====

नस्यालेपावगाहेषु वमनास्थापनेषु च|

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virecane snehane ca payaH sarvatra yujyate||112||

</div></div>

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Milk is used in many types of preparation including for nasal medication, external applications, tub baths, emesis, enema, purgation and unctuous therapies [112]

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[[Milk]] is used in many types of preparation including for nasal medication, external applications, tub baths, emesis, enema, purgation and unctuous therapies. [112]

−

+

यथाक्रमं क्षीरगुणानेकैकस्य पृथक् पृथक्|

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annapAnAdike~adhyAye bhUyo vakShyAmyasheShataH||113||

</div></div>

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Further exhaustive description of uses and action of the individual milk will be explained in due order in the chapter entitled [[Annapanavidhi Adhyaya]] [113].

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Further exhaustive description of uses and action of the individual [[milk]] will be explained in due order in the chapter entitled [[Annapanavidhi Adhyaya]]. [113]

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====Plants with latex ====

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====Plants with [[latex]] ====

अथापरे त्रयो वृक्षाः पृथग्ये फलमूलिभिः|

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kShIramarkasya vij~jeyaM vamane savirecane||115||

</div></div>

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Now other than fruiters and rooter, three plants whose latex is used will be described. These three plants are ''Snuhi'', ''Arka'' and ''Ashmantaka''.

+

Now other than fruiters and rooter, three plants whose [[latex]] is used will be described. These three plants are [[Snuhi]], [[Arka]] and [[Ashmantaka]].

−

''Ashmantaka'' is used for therapeutic emesis ; latex of ''Snuhi'' is used for purgation and latex of ''Arka'' is used both for emesis and purgation therapies [114-115]

+

[[Ashmantaka]] is used for [[therapeutic emesis]] ; latex of [[Snuhi]] is used for [[purgation]] and [[latex]] of [[Arka]] is used both for emesis and purgation therapies. [114-115]

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====Three bark-plants used as drug ====

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====Three bark of plants used as drug ====

इमांस्त्रीनपरान् वृक्षानाहुर्येषां हितास्त्वचः|

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</div></div>

There are three more trees whose bark is used as drug.

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These are ''Putika'', ''Krishnagandha'' and ''Tilvaka'' [116]

+

These are [[Putika]], [[Krishnagandha]] and [[Tilvaka]]. [116]

विरेचने प्रयोक्तव्यः पूतीकस्तिल्वकस्तथा|

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</div></div>

−

The barks of ''Putika'' and ''Tilvaka'' are used for purgation therapy. Indications of bark of ''Krishnagandha'' are erysipelas, inflammation, piles, ringworm, abscess, nodules, dermatosis and gangrene (''alaji''). The wise physician should also acquire the knowledge of the above mentioned six plants (three with latex and three with bark) of their pacification actions [117-118].

+

The barks of [[Putika]] and [[Tilvaka]] are used for purgation therapy. Indications of bark of [[Krishnagandha]] are erysipelas, inflammation, piles, ringworm, abscess, nodules, dermatosis and gangrene (''alaji''). The wise [[physician]] should also acquire the knowledge of the above mentioned six plants (three with [[latex]] and three with bark) of their pacification actions. [117-118]

</div>

−

====~~Conclusion~~ of descriptions of the plants ====

+

====Summary of descriptions of the plants ====

इत्युक्ताः फलमूलिन्यः स्नेहाश्च लवणानि च|

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</div></div>

−

Thus have been described the fruiters, rooters, unctuous substances, ~~salts~~, ~~urines~~, ~~milks~~ and the six plants whose latex and barks are used [119]

+

Thus have been described the fruiters, rooters, sources of unctuous substances, [[salt]], [[urine]], [[milk]] and the six plants whose [[latex]] and barks are used. [119]

=== Sources of identification of plants ===

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</div></div>

−

Goat-herders, sheep-herders, cowherders and forest-dwellers are acquainted with names and forms/identification of various medicinal herbs and the plants [120]

+

Goat-herders, sheep-herders, cowherders and forest-dwellers are acquainted with names and forms/identification of various medicinal herbs and the plants. [120]

====Limitation of knowledge of names of plants only ====

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</div></div>

−

Just by knowing the names and forms of herbs, though, no one can claim to have a perfect knowledge of medicinal uses of the plants [121]

+

Just by knowing the names and forms of herbs, though, no one can claim to have a perfect knowledge of medicinal uses of the plants. [121]

====Importance of complete knowledge of therapeutic actions of plants ====

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</div></div>

−

If one who knows the uses and actions of the herbs, though not acquainted with their forms, is called a pharmacologist, then what need be said of the physician who knows the herbs from all aspects![122]

+

If one who knows the uses and actions of the herbs, though not acquainted with their forms, is called a pharmacologist, then what need be said of the [[physician]] who knows the herbs from all aspects![122]

=== Ethics in clinical practice ===

−

==== Qualities of best physician ====

+

==== Qualities of best [[physician]] ====

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</div></div>

−

He is the best of ~~physicians~~ who knows the science of administration of drugs with due reference to country and season and who uses it only after examining each and every patient individually [123]

+

He is the best of [[physician]]s who knows the science of administration of drugs with due reference to country and season and who uses it only after examining each and every patient individually. [123]

==== Importance of judicious use of medicine ====

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</div></div>

−

A drug that is understood perfectly can be used as an ambrosia. But the use of a drug that is not understood perfectly may work as poison, weapon, fire or a "bolt of thunder" [124]

+

A drug that is understood perfectly can be used as an ambrosia. But the use of a drug that is not understood perfectly may work as poison, weapon, fire or a "bolt of thunder". [124]

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</div></div>

−

A drug whose name, form and properties are not known or a drug ,though known but not administered properly, spells disaster [125]

+

A drug whose name, form and properties are not known or a drug ,though known but not administered properly, spells disaster. [125]

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</div></div>

−

Even a virulent poison can be converted into an excellent medicine when prepared and administered using the right methods. Conversely, even a good medicine may act as a potent poison if improperly administered [126].

+

Even a virulent poison can be converted into an excellent medicine when prepared and administered using the right methods. Conversely, even a good medicine may act as a potent poison if improperly administered. [126]

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</div></div>

−

Therefore an intelligent man who desires health and long life should not take any medicine prescribed by a physician who is a complete stranger to the application of medicines [127]

+

Therefore an intelligent man who desires [[health]] and long [[life]] should not take any medicine prescribed by a [[physician]] who is a complete stranger to the application of medicines. [127]

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</div></div>

−

One may survive a bolt of lightning on one’s head, but one cannot expect to escape the fatal effects of medicines prescribed by an ignorant physician. [128]

+

One may survive a bolt of lightning on one’s head, but one cannot expect to escape the fatal effects of medicines prescribed by an ignorant [[physician]]. [128]

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−

The vainglorious and charlatan person, the quack, if administers medicines to the ailing bed-ridden patient who has implicit faith in him, such a quack is considered one who totally evades his duty, sinful, wicked and death incarnate. Even just by conversing with such quack may lead a person to hell [130]

+

The vainglorious and charlatan person, the quack, if administers medicines to the ailing bed-ridden patient who has implicit faith in him, such a quack is considered one who totally evades his duty, sinful, wicked and death incarnate. Even just by conversing with such quack may lead a person to hell. [130]

</div>

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−

It is better for a person who has put on the garb of the physician to take the venom of the cobra or melted copper or to swallow heated iron balls than to extort food, drink or money from a man who is afflicted with disease and has sought his aid [131-132]

+

It is better for a person who has put on the garb of the [[physician]] to take the venom of the cobra or melted copper or to swallow heated iron balls than to extort food, drink or money from a man who is afflicted with disease and has sought his aid. [131-132]

</div>

−

====Quest to become good physician ====

+

====Quest to become good [[physician]] ====

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−

Therefore, the intelligent person, who is aspiring to be a good physician, should always persevere to his best of abilities in acquiring the best qualities of a physician so that he may be a real giver of life to the people [133]

+

Therefore, the intelligent person, who is aspiring to be a good [[physician]], should always persevere to his best of abilities in acquiring the best qualities of a [[physician]] so that he may be a real giver of [[life]] to the people. [133]

</div>

−

====Qualities of best drug and physician ====

+

====Qualities of best drug and [[physician]] ====

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</div></div>

−

The right medicine is that which restores the health and best physician is that who relieves patients from their diseases [134]

+

The right [[medicine]] is that which restores the health and best [[physician]] is that who relieves patients from their diseases. [134]

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</div></div>

−

Correct application of all therapeutic measures is reflected in success in treatment (''siddhi'') and the success in turn reflects that physician is endowed with all the qualities of a best physician [135]

+

Correct application of all therapeutic measures is reflected in success in treatment ([[siddhi]]) and the success in turn reflects that [[physician]] is endowed with all the qualities of a best [[physician]]. [135]

===Summary ===

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Causes, [[dravya]], the tastes, three-fold classification of the drugs or the[[dravya]], rooters, fruiters, unctuous substances and salts are described in brief. [138]

−

~~Urines~~, milk, six plants whose latex and barks are used as drugs; actions of all of these; merits and demerits of the right and wrong administration of them have been described. [139]

+

[[Urine]], [[milk]], six plants whose [[latex]] and barks are used as drugs; actions of all of these; merits and demerits of the right and wrong administration of them have been described. [139]

−

The denunciation of quacks, points indicating the qualities of best physician; all these have been described in brief in the first chapter by the great sages. [140]

+

The denunciation of quacks, points indicating the qualities of best [[physician]]; all these have been described in brief in the first chapter by the great sages. [140]

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== Tattva Vimarsha (Fundamental Principles) ==

−

* The quest for longevity is the basic purpose of any medical science and the desire to live long is the important desire of every mankind. [verse 3]

+

* The quest for [[longevity]] is the basic purpose of any medical science and the desire to live long is the important desire of every mankind. [verse 3]

−

* An interactive conversation between patients, practitioners, researchers and community (''Loka'') members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the ~~''Shastra''~~, or the Scientific body of knowledge, to help find the most effective formulations to alleviate diseases.

+

* An interactive conversation between patients, practitioners, researchers and community ([[Loka]]) members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the [[Shaastra]], or the Scientific body of knowledge, to help find the most effective formulations to alleviate [[diseases]].

−

* The patient seeks treatment when the disease becomes obstacle in daily routine of one’s life. [verse 6]

+

* The patient seeks treatment when the [[disease]] becomes obstacle in daily routine of one’s [[life]]. [verse 6]

−

* Four objectives of life: Health is the root to attain all four basic objectives of life i.e. ''Dharma'' (guidelines for life or virtues), ''Artha'' (Wealth). ''Kama'' (desires or enjoyments) and ''Moksha'' (emancipation). The diseases are destroyer of all this as well as harmony within an environment. [verse 15]

+

* Four objectives of [[life]]: [[Health]] is the root to attain all four basic objectives of [[life]] i.e. ''Dharma'' (guidelines for life or virtues), ''Artha'' (Wealth). ''Kama'' (desires or enjoyments) and ''Moksha'' (emancipation). The [[diseases]] are destroyer of all this as well as harmony within an environment. [verse 15]

−

* Three principles for knowledge of health and disease: The best ways of knowledge about health and disease are knowing ''hetu''(causes), ''linga'' (symptomatology) and ''aushadha'' (therapeutics). [Verse 24]

+

* Three principles for [[knowledge]] of [[health]] and [[disease]]: The best ways of [[knowledge]] about [[health]] and [[disease]] are knowing [[hetu]](causes), [[linga]] (symptomatology) and [[aushadha]] (therapeutics). [Verse 24]

−

* Six categories of everything : ''Samanya'' (principle of similarity), ''vishesha'' (principle of distinction), ''guna'' (property), [[dravya]] (~substance), ''karma'' (action) and ''samavaya'' (inherence/ inseparable concomittance) are six basic categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable life span can be attained. [verse 27-29]

+

* Six categories of everything : [[Samanya]] (principle of similarity), [[vishesha]] (principle of distinction), [[guna]] (property), [[dravya]] (~substance), [[karma]] (action) and [[samavaya]] (inherence/ inseparable concomittance) are six basic categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable [[life]] span can be attained. [verse 27-29]

−

* Two ways for attainment of knowledge: [[Ayurveda]] knowledge can be attained through ''~~gyana~~ chakshu'' (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and ''dhyana chakshu'' (through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]

+

* Two ways for attainment of [[knowledge]]: [[Ayurveda]] [[knowledge]] can be attained through ''[[jnana]] chakshu'' (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and [[dhyana]] chakshu'' (through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]

−

* Eight divine powers after knowledge: After acquiring knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], one gets empowered with ''buddhi'' (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), ''siddhi'' (success), ''smriti'' (memory), ''medha'' (grasping power of intellect), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama'' (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness). [verse 39]

+

* Eight divine powers after knowledge: After acquiring knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], one gets empowered with [[buddhi]] (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), [[siddhi]] (success), [[smriti]] ([[memory]]), [[medha]] (grasping power of intellect), [[dhriti]] (restraint), [[kirti]] (fame), [[kshama]] (forbearance) and [[daya]] (kindness). [verse 39]

* Definition of [[Ayurveda]]: Ayurveda deals with all aspects of life (good, bad, happy and unhappy life) and its extent.

−

* Definition of ''Ayu'' (life) and its synonyms: ''Ayu'' means the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul. It shall be sustainable, in continuum and live at all times. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like ''sukshma sharira'' (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of ''Ayu'' denotes life process with the ''atman'', also referred to as ''jiva-atman'' (or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The ''atma'' (or ''atman'', as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of ''paramatma'' i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.

+

* Definition of [[Ayu]] ([[life]]) and its synonyms: [[Ayu]] means the conjunction of physical [[body]], [[senses]], [[mind]] and [[soul]]. It shall be sustainable, in continuum and live at all times. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like ''sukshma [[sharira]] (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of [[Ayu]] denotes life process with the [[atman]], also referred to as ''jiva-atman'' (or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The [[atma]] (or [[atman]], as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of ''paramatma'' i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.

−

* [[Ayurveda]] is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present life as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43].

+

* [[Ayurveda]] is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present [[life]] as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43]

−

* Theory of ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'': ''Samanya'' is the principle which enables to understand similarity between objects, while ''vishesha'' is the principle which enables to understand distinction between objects. [Verse 44-45]

+

* Theory of [[samanya]] and [[vishesha]]: [[Samanya]] is the principle which enables to understand similarity between objects, while [[vishesha]] is the principle which enables to understand distinction between objects. [Verse 44-45]

−

* The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being are ~~Mind~~, soul and body constituting its foundation. The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to understand and explain all aspects of [[purusha]]. [Verse 46-47]

+

* The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being are [[mind]], [[soul]] and [[body]] constituting its foundation. The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to understand and explain all aspects of [[purusha]]. [Verse 46-47]

−

* Basic elements: [[Panchamahabhuta]] (or the Five Elements), such as [[akasha]] (space),[[vayu]] (air), [[tejas]] (fire), [[apa]] (water), and [[prithvi]] (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements (soul, mind, time and space) are collectively considered basic elements (of this universe). All the entities in the universe can be categorized into ''chetana'' (sentient/animate) and ''achetana'' (insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul), but the presence or absence of sense organs. ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions): Sense objects (''shabda'" (sound), ''sparsha''(touch), ''rupa'' (appearance), ''rasa''(taste) and ''gandha''(smell)) are five ''vaisheshika'' (specific) properties.

+

* Basic elements: [[Panchamahabhuta]] (or the Five Elements), such as [[akasha]] (space),[[vayu]] (air), [[tejas]] (fire), [[apa]] (water), and [[prithvi]] (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements ([[soul]], [[mind]], [[time]] and [[space]]) are collectively considered basic elements (of this [[universe]]). All the entities in the universe can be categorized into [[chetana]] (sentient/animate) and ''achetana'' (insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of [[atma]] ([[soul]]), but the presence or absence of sense organs. [[Guna]] (basic properties/qualities) and [[karma]] (actions): Sense objects (''shabda'" (sound), ''sparsha''(touch), ''rupa'' (appearance), ''rasa''(taste) and ''gandha''(smell)) are five ''vaisheshika'' (specific) properties.

−

*''Guru'' (heavy), ''laghu'' (light), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''ushna'' (hot), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''ruksha'' (dry), ''manda'' (mild/slow acting), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''sthira'' (stable/immobile), ''sara'' (unstable), ''mridu'' (soft), ''kathina'' (hard), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''pichchila'' (sticky), ''shlakshna'' (smooth), ''khara'' (rough), ''sthoola'' (gross), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''sandra'' (solid), ''drava'' (liquid/fluid) are twenty ''samanya'' (general) properties.

+

*''Guru'' (heavy), ''laghu'' (light), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''ushna'' (hot), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''ruksha'' (dry), ''manda'' (mild/slow acting), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''sthira'' (stable/immobile), ''sara'' (unstable), ''mridu'' (soft), ''kathina'' (hard), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''pichchila'' (sticky), ''shlakshna'' (smooth), ''khara'' (rough), ''sthoola'' (gross), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''sandra'' (solid), ''drava'' (liquid/fluid) are twenty [[samanya]] (general) properties.

−

*''Buddhi'' (knowledge) with ''smriti'' (memory), ''chetana'' (consciousness), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''ahankara'' (ego), ''ichcha'' (inclination/desire), ''dwesha'' (aversion), ''sukha'' (comfort] , ''dukkha'' (discomfort), ''prayatna'' (effort) are properties of the ''atman'' or the Self.

+

*[[Buddhi]] (knowledge) with [[smriti]] ([[memory]]), [[chetana]] (consciousness), [[dhriti]] (restraint), [[ahankara]] (ego), ''ichcha'' (inclination/desire), ''dwesha'' (aversion), ''sukha'' (comfort] , ''dukkha'' (discomfort), ''prayatna'' (effort) are properties of the [[atman]] or the Self.

−

*''Para'' (superior), ''aparatva'' (other than the superior/best), ''yukti'' (~~plan~~), ''samkhya'' (numeration), ''samyoga'' (combination), ''vibhaga'' (division), ''prithkatva'' (difference), ''parimana'' (measurement), ''samskar'' (processing/transformation), and ''abhyasa'' (continuous practice) are ten ''paradi'' (literally, "para" and "adi" (et cetera)), i.e., general properties . [verse 49]

+

*''Para'' (superior), ''aparatva'' (other than the superior/best), [[yukti]] (rationale), ''samkhya'' (numeration), ''samyoga'' (combination), ''vibhaga'' (division), ''prithkatva'' (difference), ''parimana'' (measurement), ''samskar'' (processing/transformation), and ''abhyasa'' (continuous practice) are ten ''paradi'' (literally, "para" and "adi" (et cetera)), i.e., general properties . [verse 49]

−

* The movement initiated by ''prayatna'' (effort) is called ''karma'' (action). [verse 49]

+

* The movement initiated by ''prayatna'' (effort) is called [[karma]] (action). [verse 49]

−

* ''Samavaya''(Inseparability) : ''Samavaya'' is the inherent property of blending of [[dravya]] (i.e., substances/elements e.g., prithvi or earth etc.) with their ~~''gunas''~~ (properties) and ''karma'' (actions).This is universal because no [[dravya]] (substance) is devoid of ''property''. Every substance has some or the other property. [verse 50]

+

* [[Samavaya]](Inseparability) : [[Samavaya]] is the inherent property of blending of [[dravya]] (i.e., substances/elements e.g., [[prithvi]] or earth etc.) with their [[guna]] (properties) and [[karma]] (actions).This is universal because no [[dravya]] (substance) is devoid of [[guna] (property). Every substance has some or the other property. [verse 50]

−

* [[~~dravya~~]]: [[dravya]] is that in which the ''karma'' (action) and ''guna'' (properties) reside inherently and which is the ''samavayi~~'' ''~~karana'' (material cause) for any ''karya''(effect). [verse 51] Any entity which fulfils this criteria can be called as a [[dravya]]. Matter, energy and force all have certain ''guna'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions) and they are ''samavayi karana'' for the effects, so all such entities can be called as [[dravya]].

+

* [[Dravya]]: [[dravya]] is that in which the [[karma]] (action) and [[guna]] (properties) reside inherently and which is the [[samavayi]] [[karana]] (material cause) for any [[karya]](effect). [verse 51] Any entity which fulfils this criteria can be called as a [[dravya]]. Matter, energy and force all have certain [[guna]] (properties) and [[karma]] (actions) and they are [[samavayi]] [[karana]] for the effects, so all such entities can be called as [[dravya]].

−

* ''Guna'': ''Guna'' (properties) [verse 51] are inherent in a [[dravya]]. ''Karma'' (action) is also inherent in [[dravya]]. But unlike ''karma'', ~~''gunas''~~ cannot initiate any movement on their own. The movements have to be initiated by ''karma''.

+

* [[Guna]]: [[Guna]] (properties) [verse 51] are inherent in a [[dravya]]. [[Karma]] (action) is also inherent in [[dravya]]. But unlike [[karma]], [[guna]] cannot initiate any movement on their own. The movements have to be initiated by [[karma]].

−

* ''Karma''(action/effect): Action is inherent in the very phenomenon of combination/conjunction and division/disjunction , and thus, inherent in [[dravya]] as well. The act of combining or dividing is ''karma'' (action). ''Karma'' does not require anything else. [verse 52]

+

* [[Karma]](action/effect): Action is inherent in the very phenomenon of combination/conjunction and division/disjunction , and thus, inherent in [[dravya]] as well. The act of combining or dividing is [[karma]] (action). [[Karma]] does not require anything else for showing its effect. [verse 52]

−

* ''Karana'' (cause) and a definition of health: The factor responsible for action is ''karana'' (or cause), which results in a desired ''karya'' (effect or outcome), which is the end product of ''karma''. In this verse, ''samanya, vishesha'' etc. are termed as ''karana'' (cause), and the ''karya'' (desired effect) is ''dhatusamya'' i.e. homostasis. ''Dhatusamya'' leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]

+

* [[Karana]] (cause) and a definition of [[health]]: The factor responsible for action is ''karana'' (or cause), which results in a desired ''karya'' (effect or outcome), which is the end product of ''karma''. In this verse, ''samanya, vishesha'' etc. are termed as ''karana'' (cause), and the ''karya'' (desired effect) is ''dhatusamya'' i.e. homostasis. ''Dhatusamya'' leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]

* ''Karya'' [Results to be achieved]: The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to maintain and restore equilibrium among ''dhatus'' (the factors responsible for various physiological actions). [verse 53]

* Three causes of all diseases: Misuse/abuse, avoidance and excessive use of time, intellect and sense objects constitute the threefold cause of both psychic and somatic disorders. [verse 54]

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=== Six categories ===

−

A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of [[Ayurveda]] (for maintenance and promotion of health, and for curing diseases) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as ''padartha'' by ''vaisheshika darshana''. But [[Ayurveda]] terms them as ''karana''(cause), with ''dhatusamya''(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. health) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore health. As per ''Sushruta Samhita'' the duty of a ''vaidya''(physician) is to maintain or restore health, can be executed in three ways-

+

A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of [[Ayurveda]] (for maintenance and promotion of health, and for curing diseases) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as ''padartha'' by ''vaisheshika darshana''. But [[Ayurveda]] terms them as ''karana''(cause), with ''dhatusamya''(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. health) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore health. As per ''Sushruta Samhita'' the duty of a ''vaidya''([[physician]]) is to maintain or restore health, can be executed in three ways-

#By augmenting the body constituents which are depleted, to normal level.

#By depleting the body constituents which are abnormally increased, to normal level.

#By maintaining the body constituents which are proportionate, in their normal proportions.

−

For executing all these three duties, the ''vaidya'' (Ayurvedic practitioner or physician) requires ''samanya'' which leads to increase and ''vishesha'', which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. ''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' reside in ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', so a ''vaidya'' needs to study them. Relationship of ''guna'' and ''karma'' with [[dravya]] is ''samavaya''. ''Samavaya'' is responsible for existence of all the three - ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma''. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. [[Ayurveda]] gives more importance to ''gunas'' (properties and also qualities). So ''guna'' is mentioned first. E.g. ''Vacha'' is described as ''ugragandha'' (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, ''vaidya'' may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative.

+

For executing all these three duties, the ''vaidya'' (Ayurvedic practitioner or [[physician]]) requires ''samanya'' which leads to increase and ''vishesha'', which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. ''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' reside in ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', so a ''vaidya'' needs to study them. Relationship of ''guna'' and ''karma'' with [[dravya]] is ''samavaya''. ''Samavaya'' is responsible for existence of all the three - ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma''. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. [[Ayurveda]] gives more importance to ''gunas'' (properties and also qualities). So ''guna'' is mentioned first. E.g. ''Vacha'' is described as ''ugragandha'' (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, ''vaidya'' may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative.

It may appear that the concepts of ''samanya'' etc. are philosophical. But [[Ayurveda]] applies these concepts in practice.

Out of these six categories, ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' truly exist. ''Samanya, vishesha'' and ''samavaya'' do not exist in the physical world. They exist in a metaphysical sense.

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===Basic elements===

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All the objects can be classified as animate and inanimate. The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul) in specific objects. Because ''atma'' is described as ''vibhu'' (ubiquitous, i.e. present everywhere). But the presence of ''atma'' is manifested through sense organs. Therefore, presence or absence of ''indriya'' (sense organs) is taken as the base for classification of animate and inanimate objects. Sense organs here do not refer to only externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. ''Indriya'' are subtle and therefore imperceptible entities. Externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. are just their tools. E.g. plants do not exhibit external sensory organs like eyes etc., but they have all the sensations which are realised by subtle ''indriya'' present internally. It is significant to note that it was known to ancient Indians, and also to ''Ayurvedic'' ~~physicians~~ specially, that plants do possess sensations like photosensitivity, auditory, taste, olfactory and tactile sensation i.e. all five sensations [verse 48]

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All the objects can be classified as animate and inanimate. The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul) in specific objects. Because ''atma'' is described as ''vibhu'' (ubiquitous, i.e. present everywhere). But the presence of ''atma'' is manifested through sense organs. Therefore, presence or absence of ''indriya'' (sense organs) is taken as the base for classification of animate and inanimate objects. Sense organs here do not refer to only externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. ''Indriya'' are subtle and therefore imperceptible entities. Externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. are just their tools. E.g. plants do not exhibit external sensory organs like eyes etc., but they have all the sensations which are realised by subtle ''indriya'' present internally. It is significant to note that it was known to ancient Indians, and also to ''Ayurvedic'' [[physician]]s specially, that plants do possess sensations like photosensitivity, auditory, taste, olfactory and tactile sensation i.e. all five sensations [verse 48]

* To acquire knowledge, a person interacts with the external world. For this purpose, he mainly makes use of his five senses. In other words, the vehicles of interaction between the internal and external world are the five senses. With this view point, the external world is composed of objects of our senses. In the words of Nobel laureate Sir James Jeans (in his book ‘The New Background of Science’), matter is that which is capable of originating objective sensations. Since there are five objects of senses, the worldly objects can be categorised into five groups. From where do these five categories originate? There must be five sources of origin of these fundamental elements, the five ''mahabhutas''. ''Bhuta'' (or ''bhoota'') means anything which exists or anything which has evolved. Since everything evolved from these five (''pancha''), they are referred as ''maha'' (great) ''bhuta''(element). ''Mahabhutas'' exist in purest unconjugated, further indivisible forms termed as ''tanmatra'' in the beginning of the evolution of the universe. But eventually, they combine with each other by means of specific phenomena to form ''mahabhutas'' and then several conjugations result in formation of worldly objects. Everything in the present universe is composed of all five ''mahabhutas''. Even the so called elementary particles are composed of them. Being so subtle they cannot be perceived physically. But their existence can be inferred by observing their functions. The theory of five ''mahabhutas'' is immensely important to understand [[Ayurveda]]. This theory is being studied presently worldwide. This would be evident from the fact that during 1990s, five international seminars were held on this concept of five ''mahabhutas'' by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts in India, in which eminent scientists from international arena participated and presented their papers. E.g. the ex-chief of Atomic Commission of India, Dr. Raja Ramanna, presented a paper on ‘''Chit-Achit'' and ''Ishwar''’.

* The composition of human body is studied in terms of ''mahabhutas''. ''Dosha- dhatu'' and ''mala'', which are the most important body constituents, are also composed of ''mahabhutas''. Every object in the present universe is composed of ''mahabhutas'', therefore can be used as medicine, if properly studied. The medicines therefore are administered considering their ''panchabhautika'' composition. In manufacturing of drugs also one has to understand the changes in terms of ''mahabhutas''. Thus the concept of five mahabhutas is a core fundamental concept is applicable in every field of [[Ayurveda]].

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* ''Samavaya'' (Inseparable concomitance)- ''Samavaya'' is the inherent inseparable concomitance of ''prithvi'' etc. (''dravya)'' with their ''guṇas'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions). This relationship is inseparable, because [[dravya]] and ''guna-karma'' evolve together. If a [[dravya]] is destroyed, ''guna-karma'' cannot exist and vice a versa. ''Dravya, guna-karma'' evolve and get destroyed, and are replaced by newer ones, but their relationship never changes. Whenever a [[dravya]] exists, it is never devoid of ''guna-karma''. In this sense, it is said that ''samavaya'' is eternal. Out of the six categories of existants, ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' actually exist. But if their mutual relationship is not there, none of them can exist. Therefore, ''samavaya'' is the base of existance for everything. [ verse 50]

=== Mahabhuta and dosha:===

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The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three [[dosha]]. [[Ayurveda]] studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three [[dosha]]. This system of three [[dosha]], is very important practically for each physician. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successful treatment. While a physician having in-depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three [[dosha]] i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand [[Ayurveda]].

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The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three [[dosha]]. [[Ayurveda]] studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three [[dosha]]. This system of three [[dosha]], is very important practically for each [[physician]]. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successful treatment. While a [[physician]] having in-depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three [[dosha]] i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand [[Ayurveda]].

===Rasa (taste sensations)===

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* Milk is beneficial for certain states or conditions of ''raktapitta'' (bleeding disorders) as it is mentioned that even if after administration of the various decoctions, stimulation of digestive power and pacification of ''kapha''. ''Raktapitta'' not cured indicates ''vata'' predominance and in such conditions the milk of a she-goat or of a cow, boiled with five times its volume of water is advised. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 4/82-83] Thus, it is not correct to say that milk is harmful for ''adhoga'' and ''urdhvaga raktapitta'' due to laxative and ''kapha'' vitiating properties respectively. Milk is, of course, useful in ''raktapitta'' only at a certain stage (105-113).

* ''Krishnagandha'' is included in the list of ''shodhana'' drugs though it has no elimination action. It seems this drug is included in the list owing to its external purification action and application as paste (116-119).

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* Local people such as goat-herders, sheep-herders, cow-herder and other forest dwellers are generally well versed with identification of the local herbs. Therefore, the beginner may take their help of these people for identification of the plants available in their areas. However, mere knowing the name and form of the plant is not sufficient and one must know their pharmacological properties, therapeutic actions and underlying principle of its application. Hence the best physician is the one who is well acquainted with drugs in their entirely (120-123).

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* Local people such as goat-herders, sheep-herders, cow-herder and other forest dwellers are generally well versed with identification of the local herbs. Therefore, the beginner may take their help of these people for identification of the plants available in their areas. However, mere knowing the name and form of the plant is not sufficient and one must know their pharmacological properties, therapeutic actions and underlying principle of its application. Hence the best [[physician]] is the one who is well acquainted with drugs in their entirely (120-123).

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* To become a successful physician, it is very necessary to acquaint with identification of the drug material as well as to know detail pharmacological and therapeutic properties and actions of the drug.

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* To become a successful [[physician]], it is very necessary to acquaint with identification of the drug material as well as to know detail pharmacological and therapeutic properties and actions of the drug.

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* ~~Physician~~ should use only those drugs which are well known from every aspect (pharmacological effect). The unknown drug may act as poison and kill the patient. Therefore, if a physician knows all the three aspects viz., names, forms and properties of drugs can treat the patients successfully. Hence the patient should not take medicine from pseudo-~~physicians~~ and similarly a physician should not prescribe a drug which is not well known (124-133).

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* [[physician]] should use only those drugs which are well known from every aspect (pharmacological effect). The unknown drug may act as poison and kill the patient. Therefore, if a [[physician]] knows all the three aspects viz., names, forms and properties of drugs can treat the patients successfully. Hence the patient should not take medicine from pseudo-[[physician]]s and similarly a [[physician]] should not prescribe a drug which is not well known (124-133).

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* Correct drug and knowledgeable ~~physicians~~ are the two important pillars of successful treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to know the qualities of correct medicine and a good physician. The drugs having all the requisite properties and actions required for cure a particular disease is considered as the proper drug. For a good physician, it is necessary to have all the knowledge of the principles underlying the correct application of medicines. Sometimes a randomly prescribed medicine by a pseudo physician also succeeds in alleviating disease and in that case the credit is not his but it is just accidental. Thus, only that physician is best who has proficiency in the principle governing the use of a drug, knows all the aspects of the medicine to select and thus has the capability of curing the diseases (134).

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* Correct drug and knowledgeable [[physician]]s are the two important pillars of successful treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to know the qualities of correct medicine and a good [[physician]]. The drugs having all the requisite properties and actions required for cure a particular disease is considered as the proper drug. For a good [[physician]], it is necessary to have all the knowledge of the principles underlying the correct application of medicines. Sometimes a randomly prescribed medicine by a pseudo [[physician]] also succeeds in alleviating disease and in that case the credit is not his but it is just accidental. Thus, only that [[physician]] is best who has proficiency in the principle governing the use of a drug, knows all the aspects of the medicine to select and thus has the capability of curing the diseases (134).

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* [[Ayurveda]] has a very scientific principle of ''karya-karana vada'' which says every action (''karya'') has its specific cause (''karana''). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the physician is proficient in [[Ayurveda]] and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in ''Khuddaka chatushpada''. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] l0/ 6] (135)

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* [[Ayurveda]] has a very scientific principle of ''karya-karana vada'' which says every action (''karya'') has its specific cause (''karana''). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the [[physician]] is proficient in [[Ayurveda]] and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in ''Khuddaka chatushpada''. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] l0/ 6] (135)

* All over the world, plants are recognized by their scientific names (in Latin, mostly), and hence generally accepted Latin names of plants mentioned in this chapter are given here to facilitate their wide understanding.

</div>

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