Changes

Here four types of ''ayu'' are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a ''karmic'' consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 30. Ayurveda describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. Ayurveda also describes ''ayu pramana'' (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of [[Sutra Sthana]], guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like ''dashavidha pareeksha'' (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section [[Indriya Sthana]] helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. Ayurveda also describes ''ayu'' itself i.e. definition and understanding about ''Ayu''.

Here four types of ''ayu'' are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a ''karmic'' consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 30. Ayurveda describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. Ayurveda also describes ''ayu pramana'' (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of [[Sutra Sthana]], guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like ''dashavidha pareeksha'' (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section [[Indriya Sthana]] helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. Ayurveda also describes ''ayu'' itself i.e. definition and understanding about ''Ayu''.

==== Definition of ''Ayu'' and its synonyms ====

==== Definition of Ayu and its synonyms ====

Ayurveda discusses about ''Ayu'' which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides body it also consists of ''indriya'' (sense organs), ''mana''(mind) and ''atma''(soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, memory etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as ''paramanu'' (cell). The knowledge of ''ayu'' is explained by keeping such a living body in view.

Ayurveda discusses about ''Ayu'' which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides body it also consists of ''indriya'' (sense organs), ''mana''(mind) and ''atma''(soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, memory etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as ''paramanu'' (cell). The knowledge of ''ayu'' is explained by keeping such a living body in view.

''Atma'' along with the subtle ''indriyas'' and ''mana'' when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, ''ayu''(life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilisation of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per Ayurveda, it can be understood that ''atma'' has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and ''atma'' which enters in it with ''indriya'' and ''mana'', continues till death. At the time of death, ''atma'' along with ''indriya'' and ''mana'' leaves the body. When ''atma'' realises that it is distinct from the body, ''indriya'' and ''mana'', it gets ''moksha'' (emancipation).

''Atma'' along with the subtle ''indriyas'' and ''mana'' when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, ''ayu''(life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilisation of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per Ayurveda, it can be understood that ''atma'' has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and ''atma'' which enters in it with ''indriya'' and ''mana'', continues till death. At the time of death, ''atma'' along with ''indriya'' and ''mana'' leaves the body. When ''atma'' realises that it is distinct from the body, ''indriya'' and ''mana'', it gets ''moksha'' (emancipation).

====Synonyms of ''Ayu''(life)====

====Synonyms of Ayu (life)====

''Ayu'' is described with various synonyms. Each one of them is significant and they provide understanding about different aspects about ''Ayu''. Its synonym, ''dhari'' (the support), indicates that as long as the conjugation of these four factors continues, the living body is protected. Any threat to the existence is counteracted by protective mechanisms like the healing of wounds. As soon as there is a disjunction of these factors, death occurs and the decomposition of body starts. ''Jeevitam'' (animation) suggests that only as long as the conjugation of these factors continues, there is liveliness, responsive and sentient nature. This is lost as soon as there is disjunction. ''Nityaga'' (the flux) suggests that this conjugation of four factors is a dynamic process, a continuum. The living body keeps on undergoing changes, at every moment. ''Anubandha'' (the link) suggests that this conjugation is continued as a link every moment. It also forms a link at its beginning point with the previous life, and at the end point, with the next life.

''Ayu'' is described with various synonyms. Each one of them is significant and they provide understanding about different aspects about ''Ayu''. Its synonym, ''dhari'' (the support), indicates that as long as the conjugation of these four factors continues, the living body is protected. Any threat to the existence is counteracted by protective mechanisms like the healing of wounds. As soon as there is a disjunction of these factors, death occurs and the decomposition of body starts. ''Jeevitam'' (animation) suggests that only as long as the conjugation of these factors continues, there is liveliness, responsive and sentient nature. This is lost as soon as there is disjunction. ''Nityaga'' (the flux) suggests that this conjugation of four factors is a dynamic process, a continuum. The living body keeps on undergoing changes, at every moment. ''Anubandha'' (the link) suggests that this conjugation is continued as a link every moment. It also forms a link at its beginning point with the previous life, and at the end point, with the next life.

===Superiority of Ayurveda over other ''vedas'':===

===Superiority of Ayurveda over other veda:===

   

   

Certain branches of ''veda'' like ''Dhanurveda'' (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like ''upanishada'' and ''aranyaka'' are beneficial for the life after death. But Ayurveda is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.

Certain branches of ''veda'' like ''Dhanurveda'' (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like ''upanishada'' and ''aranyaka'' are beneficial for the life after death. But Ayurveda is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.

===Theory of ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'':===  

===Theory of samanya and vishesha:===  

''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' are pertaining to ''dravya'', ''guna'' and ''karma''. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through ''indriya'' (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the ''buddhi'' (intelligence), which is an attribute of the ''atma'' (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as ''jnanotpatti'' (manifestation of knowledge). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is refered in the verse 45 as ''ekatva'' (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called ''samanya'' which helps us to understand similarity (''samanyam ekatvakaram''). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle ''vishesha'' due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (''prithaktvakrita''). This is the brief essence of the principle of ''Samanya-vishesha''. This concept is also found in ''vaisheshika darshana'' (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but Ayurveda has applied this concept in practice.

''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' are pertaining to ''dravya'', ''guna'' and ''karma''. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through ''indriya'' (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the ''buddhi'' (intelligence), which is an attribute of the ''atma'' (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as ''jnanotpatti'' (manifestation of knowledge). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is refered in the verse 45 as ''ekatva'' (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called ''samanya'' which helps us to understand similarity (''samanyam ekatvakaram''). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle ''vishesha'' due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (''prithaktvakrita''). This is the brief essence of the principle of ''Samanya-vishesha''. This concept is also found in ''vaisheshika darshana'' (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but Ayurveda has applied this concept in practice.

The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three ''doshas''. Ayurveda studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three ''doshas''. This system of three ''doshas'', is very important practically for each physician. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successfull treatment. While a physician having in depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three ''doshas'' i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand Ayurveda.

The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three ''doshas''. Ayurveda studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three ''doshas''. This system of three ''doshas'', is very important practically for each physician. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successfull treatment. While a physician having in depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three ''doshas'' i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand Ayurveda.

===''Rasa'' [taste sensations]:===  

===Rasa [taste sensations]:===  

Every ''dravya'' in the present universe is composed of specific mode of conjugation of all five ''mahabhutas''. ''Rasa'' (taste) is a specialized property of ''apa mahabhuta''. When ''apa mahabhuta'' is in ''tanmatra'' (purest unconjugated form) state, it does not possess taste. When it comes in contact with ''prithvi'', the taste is formed.  The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to a combination of other three ''mahabhuta'' like ''akasha, vayu'' and ''tejas''. [verse 64]  

Every ''dravya'' in the present universe is composed of specific mode of conjugation of all five ''mahabhutas''. ''Rasa'' (taste) is a specialized property of ''apa mahabhuta''. When ''apa mahabhuta'' is in ''tanmatra'' (purest unconjugated form) state, it does not possess taste. When it comes in contact with ''prithvi'', the taste is formed.  The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to a combination of other three ''mahabhuta'' like ''akasha, vayu'' and ''tejas''. [verse 64]  

===Four objectives of life:===

===Four objectives of life:===

What is the purpose of life? What goals is one expected to achieve by living? These questions come to the mind of any wise person. The same is discussed by various Indian and world philosophies. As per Vedic traditions, ''dharma'' (righteousness or rules to lead a virtuous life), ''artha'' (wealth), ''kama'' (desires or enjoyments), and ''moksha'' (emancipation) are the four goals of life. Fulfillment of various desires and enjoyment is a fundamental goal of any human being and comes instinctively. For this, one requires wealth. ''Dharma'' is a set of rules or guidelines for good personal life and also for the whole society. Absence of ''dharma'' would only result in anarchy and violence. Therefore, ''dharma'' is essential. All the enjoyments are momentary. Every pleasure is followed by sorrow and vice versa. So one thinks of a state of permanent bliss, totally devoid of any sorrow or pain. Therefore, the concept of ''moksha'' (emancipation) is relevant. Here it is emphasized that without sound health one cannot achieve these goals. It is further emphasized, that one has to maintain a perfect balance between ''dharma, artha'' and ''kama'' in order to attain ''moksha''.  

 

What is the purpose of life? What goals is one expected to achieve by living? These questions come to the mind of any wise person. The same is discussed by various Indian and world philosophies. As per Vedic traditions, ''dharma'' (righteousness or rules to lead a virtuous life), ''artha'' (wealth), ''kama'' (desires or enjoyments), and ''moksha'' (emancipation) are the four goals of life. Fulfillment of various desires and enjoyment is a fundamental goal of any human being and comes instinctively. For this, one requires wealth. ''Dharma'' is a set of rules or guidelines for good personal life and also for the whole society. The absence of ''dharma'' would only result in anarchy and violence. Therefore, ''dharma'' is essential. All the enjoyments are momentary. Every pleasure is followed by sorrow and vice versa. So one thinks of a state of permanent bliss, totally devoid of any sorrow or pain. Therefore, the concept of ''moksha'' (emancipation) is relevant. Here it is emphasized that without sound health one cannot achieve these goals. It is further emphasized, that one has to maintain a perfect balance between ''dharma, artha'' and ''kama'' in order to attain ''moksha''.  

===Classification of drugs:===  

===Classification of drugs:===  

''Rasa, guna, veerya'' and ''vipaka'' are important properties present in a ''dravya''. They can be identified by specific methods. But due to specific arrangements of ''mahabhutas'', which causes specific transformations, a ''dravya'' is possessing unique property termed as ''prabhava''. ''Mahabhutas'' being very subtle and unobservable with our senses, their conjugations or transformations can’t be readily understood. So ''prabhava'' is unexplicable. But it is understood based on the effects produced by it. Drugs can be classified on various parameters, based on ''prabhava'' also various classifications are possible. Here a gross classification based on three most important effects of ''prabhava'' is mentioned.

''Rasa, guna, veerya'' and ''vipaka'' are important properties present in a ''dravya''. They can be identified by specific methods. But due to specific arrangements of ''mahabhutas'', which causes specific transformations, a ''dravya'' is possessing unique property termed as ''prabhava''. ''Mahabhutas'' being very subtle and unobservable with our senses, their conjugations or transformations can’t be readily understood. So ''prabhava'' is unexplicable. But it is understood based on the effects produced by it. Drugs can be classified on various parameters, based on ''prabhava'' also various classifications are possible. Here a gross classification based on three most important effects of ''prabhava'' is mentioned.

* ''Dosha prashamana'' (''dosha'' pacifying): ''Dosha prashamana'' are the drugs which bring back the equilibrium of ''dosha''. ''Amalaki'' and ''durlabha'' pacify all the three ''dosha'' as well as correct the function of ''dhatu''. ''Amalaki'' pacifies ''vata'' due to ''madhura -amla'' ''rasa'' and ''madhura vipaka'', ''pitta'' due to ''madhura-tikta-kashaya'' , ''rasa'' and ''sheeta veerya'', ''kapha'' due to ''katu''-''tikta –kashaya rasa'' and ''guna'' like ''ruksha, laghu''. This explanation of the mode of action of ''amalaki'' on three doshas is true. But question arises why with the same set of properties, different actions are not possible like vitiation of kapha with ''madhura-amla rasa'', ''madhura vipaka'' and ''sheeta veerya''. So there must be some other factor also influencing the actions. This factor is ''prabhava''. The drugs with ''doshaprashamana prabhava'' always only pacify the ''doshas'' and never vitiate them, whereas the drugs with ''dhatu pradushana prabhava'' always vitiate, never pacify.

 

* ''Dhatu pradushana'' (vitiating ''dhatu''): There are some substances which by their very nature harm the body e.g. ''mandaka dadhi'' (immature curd/yogurt), slow and acute poisons etc.

* '''''Dosha prashamana'' (''dosha'' pacifying):'''

* ''Swasthavrittahita'' (maintaining health): The substances which help in maintaining, promotion and preservation of the health of the healthy persons are ''swasthavratta hitakara''.  ''Rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'' as well as daily and seasonal regimens etc. are belonging to this group. Red rice, old rice, wheat, barley, green gram etc are good for daily use to maintain and promote health. The primary function of the substances under this category is to maintain the equilibrium of the ''dosha'' so that they are neither increased/aggravated nor decreased. Thus they help normal functioning of the body.  [verse 67]

 

* Ayurveda in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as ''bhavana'' (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat ''ama'' conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical Ayurveda does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.  

''Dosha prashamana'' are the drugs which bring back the equilibrium of ''dosha''. ''Amalaki'' and ''durlabha'' pacify all the three ''dosha'' as well as correct the function of ''dhatu''. ''Amalaki'' pacifies ''vata'' due to ''madhura -amla'' ''rasa'' and ''madhura vipaka'', ''pitta'' due to ''madhura-tikta-kashaya'' , ''rasa'' and ''sheeta veerya'', ''kapha'' due to ''katu''-''tikta –kashaya rasa'' and ''guna'' like ''ruksha, laghu''. This explanation of the mode of action of ''amalaki'' on three doshas is true. But question arises why with the same set of properties, different actions are not possible like vitiation of kapha with ''madhura-amla rasa'', ''madhura vipaka'' and ''sheeta veerya''. So there must be some other factor also influencing the actions. This factor is ''prabhava''. The drugs with ''doshaprashamana prabhava'' always only pacify the ''doshas'' and never vitiate them, whereas the drugs with ''dhatu pradushana prabhava'' always vitiate, never pacify.

* ''Samalah'' indicates byproducts such as bitumen. Salt, minerals and alkaline products obtained from earth are also included in this group. Minerals and metals obtained from earth are first subjected to purification and then converting to nano particles (''bhasma'') by the various methods described separately for each product. The metals are subjected to anaerobic incinerating processes to convert it into ''bhasma'' which is nano form of the metal. Thus the earth-products becomes free from side effects of the gross metal and very potent and cures many diseases when administered with specific decoctions. It also reduces the bulk of doses of the herbal substances when mixed with these ''bhasma''. (Verse 70).

 

* Plant origin drugs are classified in four groups viz. ''vanaspati'' (direct fruiters), ''virudha'' (creepers), ''vanaspatya'' (flower-based fruiters) and ''aushadhi'' (herbs).  

* '''''Dhatu pradushana'' (vitiating ''dhatu''):''' There are some substances which by their very nature harm the body e.g. ''mandaka dadhi'' (immature curd/yogurt), slow and acute poisons etc.

* ''Vanaspati'' (direct fruiters): There are some plants which bear fruits without visible flowers.  

 

* ''Virudha'' (creepers): The plants which spread with branches are ''virudha'' e.g. ''guduchi''

* '''''Swasthavrittahita'' (maintaining health):''' The substances which help in maintaining, promotion and preservation of the health of the healthy persons are ''swasthavratta hitakara''.  ''Rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'' as well as daily and seasonal regimens etc. are belonging to this group. Red rice, old rice, wheat, barley, green gram etc are good for daily use to maintain and promote health. The primary function of the substances under this category is to maintain the equilibrium of the ''dosha'' so that they are neither increased/aggravated nor decreased. Thus they help normal functioning of the body.  [verse 67]

* ''Vanaspatya'' (flower-based or flowering fruiters): The plants of this group bear first visible flowers and then fruits.

 

* ''Aushadhi'' (herbs): The plants which die out after bearing the fruits are ''aushadha'' e.g. wheat, paddy, barley, lentils etc (Verse 71-72).

* Use of herbal medicines:

 

Ayurveda in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as ''bhavana'' (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat ''ama'' conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical Ayurveda does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.  

 

* Use of minerals:

 

''Samalah'' indicates byproducts such as bitumen. Salt, minerals and alkaline products obtained from earth are also included in this group. Minerals and metals obtained from earth are first subjected to purification and then converting to nano particles (''bhasma'') by the various methods described separately for each product. The metals are subjected to anaerobic incinerating processes to convert it into ''bhasma'' which is nano form of the metal. Thus the earth-products becomes free from side effects of the gross metal and very potent and cures many diseases when administered with specific decoctions. It also reduces the bulk of doses of the herbal substances when mixed with these ''bhasma''. (Verse 70).

 

*Plant origin drugs are classified in four groups viz. ''vanaspati'' (direct fruiters), ''virudha'' (creepers), ''vanaspatya'' (flower-based fruiters) and ''aushadhi'' (herbs).  

*''Vanaspati'' (direct fruiters): There are some plants which bear fruits without visible flowers.  

*''Virudha'' (creepers): The plants which spread with branches are ''virudha'' e.g. ''guduchi''

*''Vanaspatya'' (flower-based or flowering fruiters): The plants of this group bear first visible flowers and then fruits.

*''Aushadhi'' (herbs): The plants which die out after bearing the fruits are ''aushadha'' e.g. wheat, paddy, barley, lentils etc (Verse 71-72).

* Fruits of both the types of ''klitaka'' (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.) are most useful for purgation, though Sushruta mentions use of its root generally. Only autumnal fruits of ''hastiparini'' are most useful. Sushruta advises use of leaves of ''aragvadha'' (Cassia fistula Linn.) for purgation but in the present context, its fruits are mentioned because they are useful (80-86).

* Fruits of both the types of ''klitaka'' (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.) are most useful for purgation, though Sushruta mentions use of its root generally. Only autumnal fruits of ''hastiparini'' are most useful. Sushruta advises use of leaves of ''aragvadha'' (Cassia fistula Linn.) for purgation but in the present context, its fruits are mentioned because they are useful (80-86).

* Ghee is the most important unctuous substance among various types of unctuous substances, because it possesses an unique quality of absorbing the properties of processed drugs without losing its own properties. Therefore ghee is the best media for processing drugs. (87-88).

* Ghee is the most important unctuous substance among various types of unctuous substances, because it possesses an unique quality of absorbing the properties of processed drugs without losing its own properties. Therefore ghee is the best media for processing drugs. (87-88).