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Line 10: − − <big>'''Abstract'''</big> − − <div style="text-align:justify;">Gotra, literally means cowshed. However, in common parlance, it denotes the progeny (or a clan) of a common male ancestor (usually, a rishi, or a sage). Atulya Gotra, or diversity in clans, is what the sages of antiquity professed, thus laying the foundation of genetics in [[Ayurveda]]. In this chapter, thirty six specific questions on a wide range of topics such as the contributing factors for embryogenesis, labor, sex determination of the embryo, congenital anomalies, transmigration of the atma, and related phenomena are answered in detail. Apart from these, causes of disease, treatment, preventive measures and the role of past and present deeds of one-self in causation of disease etc. are discussed. </div> − − '''Keywords''': ''Atulya-gotra,Shukra, Garbha, Ojoshana, Bīja, Dwireta, Klība, Prajnyaparadha, Pratikarma, Daiva'' , and ''Paurusha''. − </div> − Line 29:
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Line 775: − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − − === Long intrauterine stay (Verse 15) === − − Two conditions, namely ''garbha-shosha'' (..) and ''garbha-parisriti'' (..), have been cited as reasons for the phenomenon termed as “long intrauterine stay”. This kind of manifestation is also found in ''vata-abhipanna garbha'' (..) (SS.Sa.10/57), emaciated fetus afflicted with ''vataja'' disorders (AS.Sa.2/37) and ''vatodara'' (..) (BhS.Sa.3/6-7). This condition could be correlated with intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR). (15) − − It is interesting to note that none of the ''vedic'' texts – Ayurvedic or otherwise – blamed the mother for complications and abnormalities in pregnancy. Instead, they seem to attribute those to God’s will and the karmic deeds of the children born with those defects. (16) Line 807:
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→Tattva Vimarsha (Fundamental Principles)
|title=Atulyagotriya Sharira
|title=Atulyagotriya Sharira
|titlemode=append
|titlemode=append
|keywords=Atulya-gotra,Shukra, Garbha, Ojoshana, Bīja, Dwireta, Klība, Prajnyaparadha, Pratikarma, Daiva , and Paurusha
|keywords=Atulya-gotra,Shukra, Garbha, Ojoshana, Bīja, Dwireta, Klība, Prajnyaparadha, Pratikarma, Daiva , and Paurusha, Ayurveda, Indian system of medicine, charak samhita.
|description=Sharira Sthana Chapter 2. Different clans and aspects of the Human Birth
|description=Sharira Sthana Chapter 2. Different clans and aspects of the Human Birth
|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
|image_alt=charak samhita
|image_alt=charak samhita
|type=article
|type=article
<big>'''Sharira Sthana Chapter 2. Different clans and aspects of the Human Birth '''</big>
<big>'''Sharira Sthana Chapter 2. Different clans and aspects of the Human Birth '''</big>
{{Infobox
{{Infobox
|title = Atulyagotriya Sharira
|title = Atulyagotriya Sharira
|label5 = Other Sections
|label5 = Other Sections
|data5 = [[Sutra Sthana]], [[Nidana Sthana]], [[Vimana Sthana]], [[Indriya Sthana]], [[Chikitsa Sthana]], [[Kalpa Sthana]], [[Siddhi Sthana]]
|data5 = [[Sutra Sthana]], [[Nidana Sthana]], [[Vimana Sthana]], [[Indriya Sthana]], [[Chikitsa Sthana]], [[Kalpa Sthana]], [[Siddhi Sthana]]
|label6 = Translator and commentator
|data6 = Dwivedi M., Rai A.
|label7 = Reviewer
|data7 = Rajagopala S., Shukla (Upadhyaya) K.
|label8 = Editors
|data8 = Bhalerao S., Deole Y.S., Basisht G.
|label9 = Year of publication
|data9 = 2020
|label10 = Publisher
|data10 = [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre]]
|label11 = DOI
|data11 = [https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s04.003 10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s04.003]
}}
<big>'''Abstract'''</big>
<div style="text-align:justify;">Gotra, literally means cowshed. However, in common parlance, it denotes the progeny (or a clan) of a common male ancestor (usually, a rishi, or a sage). Atulya Gotra, or diversity in clans, is what the sages of antiquity professed, thus laying the foundation of genetics in [[Ayurveda]]. In this chapter, thirty six specific questions on a wide range of topics such as the contributing factors for embryogenesis, labor, sex determination of the embryo, congenital anomalies, transmigration of the [[aatma]], and related phenomena are answered in detail. Apart from these, causes of disease, treatment, preventive measures and the role of past and present deeds of one-self in causation of disease etc. are discussed. </div>
'''Keywords''': ''Atulya-gotra,Shukra, [[Garbha]], Ojoshana, Bīja, Dwireta, Klība, [[Prajnaparadha]], Pratikarma, Daiva'' , and ''Paurusha''.
</div>
== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==
Vedic families – and societies – were largely divided into patrilineal clans (''gotras''), where each clan could trace their origins to a common male ancestor.Consanguinity means being related to someone by blood, in contrast to ''atulya gotra''. The sages of antiquity knew about various disorders caused due to in-breeding within families, and thus they forbade marriages within a ''gotra''. To them, the study of human physiology required an analysis of the human embryo within the womb, and addressing the disorders right from the stage of conception was important for ensuring good health within families and societies.
Vedic families – and societies – were largely divided into patrilineal clans (''gotras''), where each clan could trace their origins to a common male ancestor.Consanguinity means being related to someone by blood, in contrast to ''atulya gotra''. The sages of antiquity knew about various disorders caused due to in-breeding within families, and thus they forbade marriages within a ''gotra''. To them, the study of human physiology required an analysis of the human embryo within the womb, and addressing the disorders right from the stage of conception was important for ensuring good health within families and societies.
The preceding chapter dealt with overarching concepts of physical and spiritual importance, such as ''purusha, atma, manas,'' and ''buddhi''. In continuation, this chapter begins with the “origin of a human being” as a result of sexual intercourse with a woman in her fertile period by a man from a different clan (''atulya-gotra''). It then talks about various factors influencing the embryogenesis, fetal growth and development, genetic abnormalities, features of ''sadya-grihita garbha'' (a female who has just conceived) etc.
The preceding chapter dealt with overarching concepts of physical and spiritual importance, such as ''[[purusha]], [[aatma]], [[manas]],'' and ''[[buddhi]]''. In continuation, this chapter begins with the “origin of a human being” as a result of sexual intercourse with a woman in her fertile period by a man from a different clan (''atulya-gotra''). It then talks about various factors influencing the embryogenesis, fetal growth and development, genetic abnormalities, features of ''sadya-grihita garbha'' (a female who has just conceived) etc.
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What is that of a man which has four constituents (''mahabhutas'') and six sources (''rasa'') and which comes out of him while he cohabits with a woman of a different clan in a lonely place after her menstrual cycle and is converted into embryo in the woman? [3]
What is that of a man which has four constituents (''[[mahabhuta]]s'') and six sources (''rasa'') and which comes out of him while he cohabits with a woman of a different clan in a lonely place after her menstrual cycle and is converted into embryo in the woman? [3]
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The wise call it ''shukra'', that which is implanted for the conception of an embryo. It is made up of four elements-''vayu, agni, prithvi'' and ''apa'' (four ''mahabhutas'') which contribute one fourth of the attributes of each of the ''mahabhuta'' and is originated from six ''rasas''.[4]
The wise call it ''[[shukra]]'', that which is implanted for the conception of an embryo. It is made up of four elements-''[[vayu]], [[agni]], [[prithvi]]'' and ''[[apa]]'' (four ''[[mahabhuta]]s'') which contribute one fourth of the attributes of each of the ''[[mahabhuta]]'' and is originated from six ''rasas''.[4]
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By (the excellence of) healthy sperm, ovum, ''atma'', uterus, time and by management with wholesome diet, the normal fetus gets delivered in fully developed state in time and with ease.[6]
By (the excellence of) healthy sperm, ovum, ''[[aatma]]'', uterus, time and by management with wholesome diet, the normal fetus gets delivered in fully developed state in time and with ease.[6]
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Evil spirits who move at night and eat away the ''ojas'' do not desire the body (of the fetus) as food. If these evil spirits take away the life of the fetus they can easily enter in to the mother’s body and eat away the ''ojas'', leading to her death also.[10]
Evil spirits who move at night and eat away the ''[[ojas]]'' do not desire the body (of the fetus) as food. If these evil spirits take away the life of the fetus they can easily enter in to the mother’s body and eat away the ''[[ojas]]'', leading to her death also.[10]
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The excessively aggravated ''vayu'' afflicting the union of sperm and ovum splits the zygote in various ways which results in multiple pregnancy. It is attributed to the effect of past deeds or destiny[14]
The excessively aggravated ''[[vayu]]'' afflicting the union of sperm and ovum splits the zygote in various ways which results in multiple pregnancy. It is attributed to the effect of past deeds or destiny[14]
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Why does the progeny becomes ''dwireta'' (hermaphrodite), ''pavanendriya'' (devoid of semen), ''samskaravahi'' (one whose semen pathway is obstructed by ''vata''), ''narashanda'' (sterile male ), ''narīshanda'' ( sterile female), ''vakrī'' (curved), ''irshyabhirati'' (one with mixoscopia) and ''vatikashandaka'' (one whose testicles are destroyed due to ''vayu'' and ''agni'' (''pitta'')) [17]
Why does the progeny becomes ''dwireta'' (hermaphrodite), ''pavanendriya'' (devoid of semen), ''samskaravahi'' (one whose semen pathway is obstructed by ''[[vata]]''), ''narashanda'' (sterile male ), ''narīshanda'' ( sterile female), ''vakrī'' (curved), ''irshyabhirati'' (one with mixoscopia) and ''vatikashandaka'' (one whose testicles are destroyed due to ''vayu'' and ''agni'' (''[[pitta]]'')) [17]
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Due to the mother’s lack of desire (for coitus) or complicated posture (during coitus) and also due to poor quality of ''shukra'' of the father, (the progeny) is born with ''vakrī'' (with curved organ). ''Irshyabhirati''(one with mixoscopia) is caused if the parents are subdued by jealousy and are having only mild passion towards each other.[20]
Due to the mother’s lack of desire (for coitus) or complicated posture (during coitus) and also due to poor quality of ''[[shukra]]'' of the father, (the progeny) is born with ''vakrī'' (with curved organ). ''Irshyabhirati''(one with mixoscopia) is caused if the parents are subdued by jealousy and are having only mild passion towards each other.[20]
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Salivation, heaviness, malaise, drowsiness, horripilation, distress in cardiac region, contentment, absence of discharge of ''Shukra'' from Yoni —these are the earliest signs of conception.||23||
Salivation, heaviness, malaise, drowsiness, horripilation, distress in cardiac region, contentment, absence of discharge of ''[[Shukra]]'' from Yoni —these are the earliest signs of conception.||23||
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Foetus is made up of four set of four ''mahabhutas'' (i.e., of all except ''akasha''), i.e., one set each from the mother, the father, from nutrition provided by the mother, and from the self only. Out of these factors, the past deeds of the soul and the parents significantly influence the physical and psychological traits of the progeny. Like-wise, resemblance is also determined by the deeds of past life.||27||
Foetus is made up of four set of four ''[[mahabhuta]]s'' (i.e., of all except ''[[akasha]]''), i.e., one set each from the mother, the father, from nutrition provided by the mother, and from the self only. Out of these factors, the past deeds of the soul and the parents significantly influence the physical and psychological traits of the progeny. Like-wise, resemblance is also determined by the deeds of past life.||27||
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Due to defects in the sperm/ovum, past deeds of the soul, uterus, time and mother’s food and behavior, ''doshas'' get vitiated causing various abnormalities in shape, complexion and sense organs. Just as in the rainy season, wood, stone pieces and water current cause derangements in a tree situated in the river stream, ''doshas'' cause abnormalities in fetus situated in the womb.||29-30||
Due to defects in the sperm/ovum, past deeds of the soul, uterus, time and mother’s food and behavior, ''[[dosha]]s'' get vitiated causing various abnormalities in shape, complexion and sense organs. Just as in the rainy season, wood, stone pieces and water current cause derangements in a tree situated in the river stream, ''[[dosha]]s'' cause abnormalities in fetus situated in the womb.||29-30||
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The soul is never dissociated with the subtle and sense-transcending ''bhutas'', past deeds, mind, intellect, ego and other ''vikara''. Mind is associated with ''rajas'' and ''tamas'', while all defects are caused by ignorance (''tamas'') or lack of knowledge. The cause of movement and inclination of soul from one body to another is defective mind and potent past deeds. ||37-38||
The soul is never dissociated with the subtle and sense-transcending ''bhutas'', past deeds, mind, intellect, ego and other ''vikara''. Mind is associated with ''[[rajas]]'' and ''[[tamas]]'', while all defects are caused by ignorance (''[[tamas]]'') or lack of knowledge. The cause of movement and inclination of soul from one body to another is defective mind and potent past deeds. ||37-38||
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Intellectual error (''pragyaparadha''), unbalanced use of senses and temporal effects- these three are the causes of all disorders. Similarly, the remedy of all disorders lies in the balanced use of intellect, senses and time. ||40||
Intellectual error (''[[prajnaparadha]]''), unbalanced use of senses and temporal effects- these three are the causes of all disorders. Similarly, the remedy of all disorders lies in the balanced use of intellect, senses and time. ||40||
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One who eliminates the accumulation of ''doshas'' of early winter in spring, that of summer in early rains and that of rainy season in autumn, never suffers from seasonal disorders. ||45||
One who eliminates the accumulation of ''[[dosha]]s'' of early winter in spring, that of summer in early rains and that of rainy season in autumn, never suffers from seasonal disorders. ||45||
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== Tattva Vimarsha (Fundamental Principles) ==
== Tattva Vimarsha (Fundamental Principles) ==
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*The prerequisites of a healthy conception include the selection of partner in terms of clan (''gotra'') , ovulatory period (''rajah-kshayante''), psychic component (''rahovisrishta''), posture during coitus (''mithuna'') and ''shukra''. The expectant couples have to be very conscious of these facts to achieve a healthy embryo.
*The prerequisites of a healthy conception include the selection of partner in terms of clan (''gotra'') , ovulatory period (''rajah-kshayante''), psychic component (''rahovisrishta''), posture during coitus (''mithuna'') and ''[[shukra]]''. The expectant couples have to be very conscious of these facts to achieve a healthy embryo.
*The word ''shukra'' denotes different components in both male and female. In a broad sense, it could mean the whole semen, sperm, ovum and sex hormones. Here it refers to sperm, also called ''sukshma-beeja'' (CK on CS.Sa.2/3).
*The word ''[[shukra]]'' denotes different components in both male and female. In a broad sense, it could mean the whole semen, sperm, ovum and sex hormones. Here it refers to sperm, also called ''sukshma-beeja''. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/3]
*Consanguineous marriages have been practiced since long. Since such unions increase the chances of genetic disorders in the offspring, sages forbade it. Lord Atreya advised against consanguineous marriages, as indicated in [[Charak Samhita]].
*Consanguineous marriages have been practiced since long. Since such unions increase the chances of genetic disorders in the offspring, sages forbade it. Lord Atreya advised against consanguineous marriages, as indicated in [[Charak Samhita]].
*''Shukra'' has four ''mahabhuta'' before fertilization and fifth (''akasha'') joins after fertilization.
*''[[Shukra]]'' has four ''[[mahabhuta]]'' before fertilization and fifth (''[[akasha]]'') joins after fertilization.
*Requirement for normal healthy birth: ''Shukra'' (sperm), ''asrik'' (ovum), ''atma'' (soul), ''garbhayashaya sampat'' (healthy uterus), ''kalasampat'' (suitable time for conception),wholesome food and good antenatal care.
*Requirement for normal healthy birth: ''[[Shukra]]'' (sperm), ''asrik'' (ovum), ''[[atma]]'' (soul), ''garbhayashaya sampat'' (healthy uterus), ''kalasampat'' (suitable time for conception),wholesome food and good antenatal care.
*Reasons for delayed conception in a fertile woman: Abnormal uterus and vagina, psychiatric illness, abnormal sperm and ovum, unwholesome diet, faulty lifestyle, wrong timing of intercourse and loss of physical strength.
*Reasons for delayed conception in a fertile woman: Abnormal uterus and vagina, psychiatric illness, abnormal sperm and ovum, unwholesome diet, faulty lifestyle, wrong timing of intercourse and loss of physical strength.
*Reasons for abortion: Affliction by evil spirits.
*Reasons for abortion: Affliction by evil spirits.
=== Introduction to process of embryogenesis (Verse 2) ===
=== Introduction to process of embryogenesis (Verse 2) ===
In the preceding chapter, pre-conception factors associated with the human origin, and spiritual factors applicable to treatment in the form of ''naishthika'' and ''moksha'' were discussed. In ''atulyagotriya'', characteristics of a healthy conception, and genetic disorders associated with consanguinity have been described (CK, on CS.Sa.2/1-2).
In the preceding chapter, pre-conception factors associated with the human origin, and spiritual factors applicable to treatment in the form of ''naishthika'' and ''moksha'' were discussed. In ''atulyagotriya'', characteristics of a healthy conception, and genetic disorders associated with consanguinity have been described. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/1-2]
The word ''garbhadhirupa'' may be interpreted in a broader way to include the entire process of embryogenesis by which an embryo grows and develops into a healthy foetus. Here, ''garbha'' means the conjugation of ''shukra-shonita'' and ''jivatma'' as described in the texts and ''roopa'' means full manifestation. The word, ''adi'' denotes the entire process from the conjugation to full manifestation.(2)
The word ''garbhadhirupa'' may be interpreted in a broader way to include the entire process of embryogenesis by which an embryo grows and develops into a healthy foetus. Here, ''[[garbha]]'' means the conjugation of ''[[shukra]]-[[shonita]]'' and ''jivatma'' as described in the texts and ''roopa'' means full manifestation. The word, ''adi'' denotes the entire process from the conjugation to full manifestation.(2)
=== Pre-requisites for conception (Verse 3) ===
=== Pre-requisites for conception (Verse 3) ===
Sexual intercourse within the same clan causes ''adharma'', thus contraindicated in ''dharmashastra'' (CK on CS.Sa.2/3). Hence ''atulyagotra'' implies non-consanguineous cohabitation. The term ''rajakshaya'' implies menstrual (bleeding) phase, which is of three days and during this period sexual intercourse is contraindicated (CK on CS.Sa.2/3). Post-menstrual phase is considered to be an appropriate time to conceive. This period is referred as ''ritu'' and the duration is expressly described in the texts (SS.Sa.2/33, Sa.3/6; AS.Sa.1/40; AH.Sa.1/27; KS.Sa.5/5, Manu.3/46-47). It is also observed that the first three days and the 16th day of ''ritukala'' is not suitable for conception (Dal.SS.Sa3/6). Analyzing the above facts, it could be stated that ''rajah-kshayante'' referred here is the post menstrual ovulatory phase and is from the 4th to the 15th day of the menstrual cycle.
Sexual intercourse within the same clan causes ''adharma'', thus contraindicated in ''dharmashastra''. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/3] Hence ''atulyagotra'' implies non-consanguineous cohabitation. The term ''rajakshaya'' implies menstrual (bleeding) phase, which is of three days and during this period sexual intercourse is contraindicated. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/3] Post-menstrual phase is considered to be an appropriate time to conceive. This period is referred as ''ritu'' and the duration is expressly described in the texts. [Su.Sa.Shaira Sthana 2/33]<ref name=Susruta>Sushruta. Sushruta Samhita. Edited by Jadavaji Trikamji Aacharya. 8th ed. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia;2005.</ref>, [Su.Sa.Shaira Sthana 3/6]<ref name=Susruta/>; [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/40]<ref name=Sangraha>Vridha Vagbhata, Ashtanga Sangraha. Edited by Shivaprasad Sharma. 3rd ed. Varanasi: Chaukhamba sanskrit series office;2012.</ref>; [A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/27]<ref name=Hridaya>Vagbhata. Ashtanga Hridayam. Edited by Harishastri Paradkar Vaidya. 1st ed. Varanasi: Krishnadas Academy;2000.</ref>; [K.Sa.Shaira Sthana 5/5]<ref name=Kashyapa>Vrddhajivaka, Kasyapa Samhita. Edited by Tewari P V, Reprint edition. Varanasi: Chaukhambha visvabharati; 2008</ref>,[Manu.3/46-47] It is also observed that the first three days and the 16th day of ''ritukala'' is not suitable for conception. [Dalhana on Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 3/6]<ref name=Susruta/> Analyzing the above facts, it could be stated that ''rajah-kshayante'' referred here is the post menstrual ovulatory phase and is from the 4th to the 15th day of the menstrual cycle.
The influence of psychic component is very important to conceive and is described in many ways. A lonely place (''rahovisrishta'') is advised because any hindrance to the act affects emission of semen during coitus (CK on CS.Sa.2/3). A positive, healthy state of mind (''saumanasya'') is said to be the best state to conceive (CS.Su.25/40). If the woman thinks about an animal during coitus, the progeny takes the character of that animal (CS.Sa.2/25, 8/14; SS.Sa.2/46; AS. Su.13/3, Sa.1/53, AH.Sa.1/31). Similarly, proper methods for sex (''mithuna'') are indicated and it is advised not to follow wrong methods (CK on CS.Sa.2/3).Normal and abnormal postures (CS.Sa.8/6,58, AS.Sa.1/58-59), contraindication of coitus for both male and female along with their effects (CS.Sa.8/6, SS.Sa.10/56, Ci.24/110-123, AS.Sa.1/21,58; BP.Pur.3/26,5/300-302; BhS.Su.7/5-7) are found in many places. Four ''mahabhutas'' and six sources are the constituents of the ''sukshma-beeja'' which is taken with word ''shukra'' (CK on CS.Sa.2/3) viz. the sperm. (3)
The influence of psychic component is very important to conceive and is described in many ways. A lonely place (''rahovisrishta'') is advised because any hindrance to the act affects emission of semen during coitus. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/3] A positive, healthy state of mind (''saumanasya'') is said to be the best state to conceive. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]].25/40). If the woman thinks about an animal during coitus, the progeny takes the character of that animal. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/25], [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 8/14]; [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 2/46]<ref name=Susruta/>; [A.S.Sutra Sthana 13/2]<ref name=Sangraha/>,[A.S.Sharira Sthana.1/53]<ref name=Sangraha/>, [A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/30]<ref name=Hridaya/> Similarly, proper methods for sex (''mithuna'') are indicated and it is advised not to follow wrong methods. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/3] Normal and abnormal postures [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]]8/6],[Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]]8/58], [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/58-59]<ref name=Sangraha/>, contraindication of coitus for both male and female along with their effects [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 8/6], [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 10/56]<ref name=Susruta/>, [Su.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 24/110-123]<ref name=Susruta/>, [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/21]<ref name=Sangraha/>,[A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/58]<ref name=Sangraha/>; [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/21]<ref name=Sangraha/>,[B.P. Purvakandam 3/26]<ref name=Bhavaprakash>Bhavamishra. Bhavaprakasha -Volume I. Translated from Sanskrit by K.R. Srikantha Murthy. 1st ed. Varanasi: Krishnadas academy;2000</ref> [B.P. Purvakandam 5/300-02]<ref name=Bhavaprakash/>; [Bh.Sa.Sutra Sthana 7/5-7]<ref name=Bhela>Bhela, Bhela Samhita. Edited by Priya Vrat Sharma. . Reprint ed. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Visvabharati; 2008</ref> are found in many places. Four ''[[mahabhuta]]s'' and six sources are the constituents of the ''sukshma-beeja'' which is taken with word ''[[shukra]]'' [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/3] viz. the sperm. (3)
=== Description of ''shukra'' (Verse 4-6) ===
=== Description of ''[[shukra]]'' (Verse 4-6) ===
The word ''shukra'' referred here is described under the term ''beeja'' in the context of factors responsible for conception in different texts (CS.Su.11/23, SS.Sa.2/33, AS. Sa.1/68, KS.Sa.5/5). The author also uses ''aartava''(ovum) and ''shukra'' (sperm) interchangeably with the word ''beeja'' (Dal.SS.Sa.2/33). Similarly, healthy ''pum-beeja'' (quality sperm) is taken with ''shuddha shukra'' (AD, AH.Sa.1/8-9). Regarding the constituents and sources of ''shukra'', it is stated that all the four ''mahabhutas'' (i.e., all except ''akasha'') equally contribute in creating semen and the best qualities of these four constituents produce pure semen (CK on CS.Sa.2/4) otherwise it becomes abnormal (GD on CS.Sa.2/4). Though semen is ''panchabhautika'', ''akasha'' is not mentioned here since it does not have any kinetic property. Thus, ejaculated semen is said to be ''chatushpada''. However, ''akasha'' being all pervasive, it combines with semen in the uterus (where the semen finally becomes ''panchabhautika'').
The word ''[[shukra]]'' referred here is described under the term ''beeja'' in the context of factors responsible for conception in different texts [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 11/23],[Su.Sa[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/33]<ref name=Susruta/>, [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/68]<ref name=Sangraha/>, [K.Sa.Sharira Sthana 5/5]<ref name=Kashyapa/>. The author also uses ''aartava''(ovum) and ''[[shukra]]'' (sperm) interchangeably with the word ''beeja''. [Dalhana on[Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 2/33]<ref name=Susruta/> Similarly, healthy ''pum-beeja'' (quality sperm) is taken with ''shuddha [[shukra]]''. [Arunadatta on A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/8-9]<ref name=Hridaya/> Regarding the constituents and sources of ''[[shukra]]'', it is stated that all the four ''[[mahabhuta]]s'' (i.e., all except ''[[akasha]]'') equally contribute in creating semen and the best qualities of these four constituents produce pure semen [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/4] otherwise it becomes abnormal [Gangadara on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/4] Though semen is ''panchabhautika'', ''akasha'' is not mentioned here since it does not have any kinetic property. Thus, ejaculated semen is said to be ''chatushpada''. However, ''[[akasha]]'' being all pervasive, it combines with semen in the uterus (where the semen finally becomes ''panchabhautika'').
The semen createdfrom a six-''rasa'' diet is said to be pure. Excessive use of ''madhura rasa'' promotes semen while ''amla'' etc. destroys it (CK on CS.Sa.2/4).It is also found that if there is unvitiated ''shukra'', healthy ''shonita'', healthy ''garbhashaya'', and observation of prescribed diets and specific lifestyles for both male and female partners, conception is definite (CS.Sa.8/17, Ci.30/125-26; AS.Ut.39/79; AH.Ut.34/61-62).The word ''sampad'' is related to all ''shukra, asriga, atma'', ''ashaya'' and ''kala''. Unafflicted (''adushta'') ''shukra'', ''asriga'' and ''ashaya'', conjugation of soul with ''shukra-shonita'', having auspicious deeds, and normal season (i.e., no extremities in weather conditions etc.) are characteristics of ideal factors for a healthy conception. From the standpoint of ''kala'', or time, the ideal time for delivery is ninth or tenth month of pregnancy (CK on C.S. Sha. 2/6 and C. S. Sha. 4/25 ) as up to this time the fetus gets well developed.
The semen created from a six-''rasa'' diet is said to be pure. Excessive use of ''madhura rasa'' promotes semen while ''amla'' etc. destroys it. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana 2/4] It is also found that if there is unvitiated ''[[shukra]]'', healthy ''shonita'', healthy ''garbhashaya'', and observation of prescribed diets and specific lifestyles for both male and female partners, conception is definite. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 8/17], [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 30/125-26]; [A.S.Uttara Sthana 39/79]<ref name=Sangraha/>; [A.H.Uttara Sthana 34/61-62]<ref name=Hridaya/> The word ''sampad'' is related to all ''[[shukra]], asriga, [[aatma]]'', ''ashaya'' and ''kala''. Unafflicted (''adushta'') ''[[shukra]]'', ''asriga'' and ''ashaya'', conjugation of soul with ''[[shukra]]-shonita'', having auspicious deeds, and normal season (i.e., no extremities in weather conditions etc.) are characteristics of ideal factors for a healthy conception. From the standpoint of ''[[kala]]'', or time, the ideal time for delivery is ninth or tenth month of pregnancy [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/6] and [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 4/25] as up to this time the fetus gets well developed.
It is said that due to its specific nature, the ''garbha'' descends for labor in its appropriate time (SS.Ni.8/7-8). Development of ''vairagya'' (indifference) by fetus from its intrauterine stay (HS.6th sthana.1/23) and attainment of full maturity of the body (BhS.Sa.3/13) are also responsible for delivery of a mature fetus in proper time and with ease. (6)
It is said that due to its specific nature, the ''[[garbha]]'' descends for labor in its appropriate time. [Su.Sa.Nidana Sthana 8/7-8]<ref name=Susruta/> Development of ''vairagya'' (indifference) by fetus from its intrauterine stay [H.Sa.6th sthana.1/23]<ref name=Harita>Harita, Harita Samhita. Edited by Harihariprasad Tripati. 2nd ed. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy; 2009</ref> and attainment of full maturity of the body [Bh.Sa.Sharira Sthana 3/13]<ref name=Bhela/> are also responsible for delivery of a mature fetus in proper time and with ease. (6)
=== Factors affecting conception (Verse 7) ===
=== Factors affecting conception (Verse 7) ===
Delays in conception (by fertile women) due to affliction by various ''yonivyapadas''(..) have been described in various texts (CS.Ci.30/38; AS.Ut.38/53; AH.Ut.33/52). There are several other reasons that have been documented under ''Naigameshahrita garbha'' or ''nagodara'' (delayed labor) (SS.Sa.10/57, KS.Kh 9/39), ''paripluta'' or ''divya-garbha''(..) (KS.Kh.9/39-40), ''bhootah rita garbha''(..) (AS.Sa.1/17, AH.Sa.2/62). All these phenomena could be termed subfertility. (7) It is important to remind the reader that the later stages of ''raktagulma'' resemble pregnancy in their signs and symptoms, as described by other commentators and sages such as Kashyapa (KS.Kh.9/37,AD.AH.Sa.2/61,CS.Ni.3/14, Ci.5/19; AS.Ni.11/45; AH.Ni.11/50; KS.Ci.8/17). Ignorant people could misjudge bleeding in ''raktagulma'' as destruction of the fetus by evil spirits(Dutta DC, 1998) or hydatidiform mole (Dawn CS,1998) (10)
Delays in conception (by fertile women) due to affliction by various ''yonivyapadas''(..) have been described in various texts. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 30/38]; [A.S.Uttara Sthana 38/53]<ref name=Sangraha/>; [A.H.Uttara Sthana 33/52]<ref name=Hridaya/> There are several other reasons that have been documented under ''Naigameshahrita garbha'' or ''nagodara'' (delayed labor) [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 10/57]<ref name=Susruta/>, [K.Sa.Khilasthana 9/39]<ref name=Kashyapa/>, ''paripluta'' or ''divya-garbha''(..) [K.Sa.Khilasthana.9/39-40]<ref name=Kashyapa/>, ''bhootah rita garbha''(..) [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/17]<ref name=Sangraha/>, [A.H.Sharira Sthana 2/62]<ref name=Hridaya/> All these phenomena could be termed subfertility. (7) It is important to remind the reader that the later stages of ''raktagulma'' resemble pregnancy in their signs and symptoms, as described by other commentators and sages such as Kashyapa [K.Sa.Khilasthana.9/37]<ref name=Kashyapa/>,[Arunadatta on A.H.Sharira Sthana 2/61]<ref name=Hridaya/>, [Cha.Sa.[[Nidana Sthana]] 3/14],[Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 5/19]; [A.S.Nidana Sthana 11/45]<ref name=Sangraha/>;[A.H.Nidana Sthana 11/50]<ref name=Hridaya/>; [K.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 8/17)]<ref name=Kashyapa/> Ignorant people could misjudge bleeding in ''raktagulma'' as destruction of the fetus by evil spirits(Dutta DC, 1998) or hydatidiform mole (Dawn CS,1998) (10)
=== Factors affecting gender of the fetus (Verse 12) ===
=== Factors affecting gender of the fetus (Verse 12) ===
It is generally accepted in various Ayurvedic texts that there is predominance of artava and shukra in the female or male child respectively (SS.Sa.3/5; AS.Sa.2/5; AH.Sa.1/5; BP.Pur.3/40; BhS.Sa.3/10). The partner ejaculating his/her seed first would determine the respective gender of the progeny (AD,AH.Sa.1/5). Irrespective of quantity, the functional potency of shukra and artava influences the formation of sex (Dal, SS.Sa.3/5). Shukra and artava may be influenced by quantity of doshas affected by age, day, night, season, stage of food consumption (BP.Pur.3/40), thus impacting sex of fetus. Relative predominance of retas (semen) and indriya (sexual power) are also responsible for sex formation (HS.6th Sthan.1/26-27). Dakshina-nadi (right ovary) and vama-nadi (left ovary) are considered as “seats” for the formation of male and female child respectively (YR. Yonivyapada). Per some texts, God’s will is also responsible for sex formation (ShrS. Pur.6/12). Apart from this, the day of coitus (either odd or even) is responsible for female or male child respectively (CS.Sa.8/5; SS.Sa.2/28,30, Sa.3/12; AS.Sa.1/48; AH.Sa1/28; KS.Sa.5/6, BhS.Sa5/5; BP.Pur.3/21). It is also explained that if there is predominance of shukra but female ejaculates her ovum first, the child will be born male with feminine characters and vice-versa (AD.AH.Sa.1/5) (12)
It is generally accepted in various Ayurvedic texts that there is predominance of artava and [[shukra]] in the female or male child respectively [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 3/5]<ref name=Susruta/>; [A.S.Sharira Sthana 2/5]<ref name=Sangraha/>; [A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/5]<ref name=Hridaya/>; [B.P.Purvakanda 3/40]<ref name=Bhavaprakash/>; [Bh.S.Sharira Sthana.3/10]<ref name=Bhela/> The partner ejaculating his/her seed first would determine the respective gender of the progeny. [Arunadatta on A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/5]<ref name=Hridaya/> Irrespective of quantity, the functional potency of [[shukra]] and artava influences the formation of sex. [Dalhana on Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 3/5]<ref name=Susruta/> Shukra and artava may be influenced by quantity of [[dosha]]s affected by age, day, night, season, stage of food consumption [B.P.Purvakanda 3/40]<ref name=Bhavaprakash/>, thus impacting sex of fetus. Relative predominance of retas (semen) and [[indriya]] (sexual power) are also responsible for sex formation. [H.S.6th Sthan.1/26-27]<ref name=Harita/> Dakshina-nadi (right ovary) and vama-nadi (left ovary) are considered as “seats” for the formation of male and female child respectively (YR. Yonivyapada). Per some texts, God’s will is also responsible for sex formation. [Shr.S.Purvakanda.6/12]<ref name=Shargadara>Sharangadhara. Sharangadhara Samhita. Translated from Sanskrit by K.R. Srikantha Murthy. Reprint ed. Varanasi: Chaukhambha orientalia;2016.</ref> Apart from this, the day of coitus (either odd or even) is responsible for female or male child respectively. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 8/5]; [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 2/28-30]<ref name=Susruta/>,[Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 3/12]<ref name=Susruta/>; [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/48]<ref name=Sangraha/>; [A.H.Sharira SThana 1/28]<ref name=Hridaya/>; [K.S.Sharira Sthana 5/6]<ref name=Kashyapa/>, [Bh.S.Sharira Sthana 5/5]<ref name=Bhela/>; [B.P.Purvakanda.3/21]<ref name=Bhavaprakash/> It is also explained that if there is predominance of [[shukra]] but female ejaculates her ovum first, the child will be born male with feminine characters and vice-versa. [Arunadatta on A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/5]<ref name=Hridaya/> (12)
=== Cause of multiple pregnancies (Verse 14) ===
=== Cause of multiple pregnancies (Verse 14) ===
Multiple pregnancies happen due to division of the zygote (''orshukra-artava'') by vitiated ''vata'' - an observation noted in all Ayurvedic texts and accepted by all commentators (SS.Sa.2/37; AS.Sa.2/6; AH.Sa.1/6; KS.Ka.6/59; BP.Pur.3/39). Apart from this phenomenon, instability of mind of the couple during coitus is responsible for producing twins as it influences the ''doshas'' and ''dhatus'' that produce fetal parts (HS.6th sthana.1/38-39). And finally, there are karmic deeds of the soul of the fetus that the parents have no control over. (CK on CS.Sa.2/13-14). (14)
Multiple pregnancies happen due to division of the zygote (''[[shukra]]-artava'') by vitiated ''[[vata]]'' - an observation noted in all Ayurvedic texts and accepted by all commentators. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana.2/37]<ref name=Susruta/>; [A.S.Sharira Sthana 2/6]<ref name=Sangraha/>; [A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/6]<ref name=Hridaya/>; [K.S.Khilasthan 6/59]<ref name=Kashyapa/>; [B.P.Purvakanda 3/39]<ref name=Bhavaprakash/> Apart from this phenomenon, instability of mind of the couple during coitus is responsible for producing twins as it influences the ''[[dosha]]s'' and ''[[dhatu]]s'' that produce fetal parts. [H.S.6th sthana.1/38-39]<ref name=Harita/> And finally, there are karmic deeds of the soul of the fetus that the parents have no control over. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]]2/13-14] (14)
=== ''Dwireta''(Hermaphroditism) ===
=== ''Dwireta''(Hermaphroditism) ===
Manifestations of ''dwireta'' could be any of these:
Manifestations of ''dwireta'' could be any of these:
*Normal morphology like nose, eyes etc. of male and female, devoid of specific sexual organs such as vagina, penis etc. but having secondary characters of both the sexes, such as breast, moustaches etc. This is caused due to the combination of male and female seeds (sperm and ovum) in equal proportion, afflicted (''upatapta'') in the genetic code responsible for producing ''beeja'' (''beeja-janaka-beejabhaga'').
*Normal morphology like nose, eyes etc. of male and female, devoid of specific sexual organs such as vagina, penis etc. but having secondary characters of both the sexes, such as breast, moustaches etc. This is caused due to the combination of male and female seeds (sperm and ovum) in equal proportion, afflicted (''upatapta'') in the genetic code responsible for producing ''beeja'' (''beeja-janaka-beejabhaga'').
*Possessing appropriate sexual organs of a male or a female, but no secondary characters. In this case, ''kala'' and ''karma'' are considered to be key factors. The sexual organs are present since the time of conception, hence they manifest, but the factors that are responsible for the development of breasts and moustaches (in females and males respectively) become weaker during puberty. The afflicted seeds dominate only secondary sex characters and do not allow them to manifest at all. These phenomena are entirely dependent on past deeds. When ''shukra'' and ''shonita'' combine in equal proportion, there is equal dominance of ''shukra'' and ''artava'' causing genetic mutation (CK on CS.Sa.2/18, SS.Sa.3/5; AS.Sa.2/5; AH.Sa.1/5). It is referred as ''napunsaka'' in several vedic texts. In addition to this, Harita accepted that if ''doshas'', ''bala, prakriti'' and ''vikriti'' of a couple are present in equal proportions in the offspring, then a female hermaphrodite would take birth (HS.6th sthana.1/37-40). However, even in such cases, God’s will is said to be responsible (Shr.S.Pur.6/12).
*Possessing appropriate sexual organs of a male or a female, but no secondary characters. In this case, ''[[kala]]'' and ''karma'' are considered to be key factors. The sexual organs are present since the time of conception, hence they manifest, but the factors that are responsible for the development of breasts and moustaches (in females and males respectively) become weaker during puberty. The afflicted seeds dominate only secondary sex characters and do not allow them to manifest at all. These phenomena are entirely dependent on past deeds. When ''[[shukra]]'' and ''shonita'' combine in equal proportion, there is equal dominance of ''[[shukra]]'' and ''artava'' causing genetic mutation. ([Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/18], [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 3/5]<ref name=Susruta/>; [A.S.Sharira Sthana 2/5]<ref name=Sangraha/>; [A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/5]<ref name=Hridaya/> It is referred as ''napunsaka'' in several vedic texts. In addition to this, Harita accepted that if ''[[dosha]]s'', ''bala, [[prakriti]]'' and ''vikriti'' of a couple are present in equal proportions in the offspring, then a female hermaphrodite would take birth. [H.S.6th sthana.1/37-40]<ref name=Harita/> However, even in such cases, God’s will is said to be responsible. [Shr.Sa.Purvakandam 6/12]<ref name=Shargadara/>
=== Defects in conception due to non passage of ''shukra'' (Verse 19-20) ===
=== Defects in conception due to non passage of ''[[shukra]]'' (Verse 19-20) ===
Among other disorders mentioned in this chapter, ''pavanendriya'' is a condition in which ''pavana'' (air) is ejaculated during coitus (CK on CS.Sa.2/18). In fact, it may be ‘devoid of semen’, and hence incapable to fertilize the ovum. ''Shandha'' is also an affliction where there is absence of semen (SS.Sa.2/44). (18)
Among other disorders mentioned in this chapter, ''pavanendriya'' is a condition in which ''pavana'' (air) is ejaculated during coitus. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/18] In fact, it may be ‘devoid of semen’, and hence incapable to fertilize the ovum. ''Shandha'' is also an affliction where there is absence of semen. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 2/44]<ref name=Susruta/> (18)
''Samskaravaha'' is a condition in which ''shukra'' flows out after blockings in the channels (''shukrashaya dwara'') are cleared using therapeutic procedures (''basti, vajikarana'' etc.). ''Asekya, saugandhika, kumbhika'' and ''irshaka'' described by Sushruta (SS. Sa.2/44) could also be administered to help ejaculation of śhukra (CK on CS.Sa.2/19).
''Samskaravaha'' is a condition in which ''[[shukra]]'' flows out after blockings in the channels (''shukrashaya dwara'') are cleared using therapeutic procedures (''[[basti]], [[vajikarana]]'' etc.). ''Asekya, saugandhika, kumbhika'' and ''irshaka'' described by Sushruta [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 2/44]<ref name=Susruta/> could also be administered to help ejaculation of [[shukra]]. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]]2/19]
''Mandavega'' (sluggish desire), ''alpa- beeja'' (diminished seed), ''abala'' (devoid of inherent strength- ''nisargabala rahita''), ''aharsha'' (lack of passion) and ''kleeba'' (''dushtabeeja''; damaged genetic portion)- lead to ''stree- shanda'' or ''pum-shanda'', conditions that cause problems in conception and afflict female or male partners respectively (CK on CS.Sa.2/19). These are also referred, respectively, as ''stree-shandha'' and ''nara-shandha'' in other texts (SS.Sa.2/42-43). (19)
''Mandavega'' (sluggish desire), ''alpa- beeja'' (diminished seed), ''abala'' (devoid of inherent strength- ''nisargabala rahita''), ''aharsha'' (lack of passion) and ''kleeba'' (''dushtabeeja''; damaged genetic portion)- lead to ''stree- shanda'' or ''pum-shanda'', conditions that cause problems in conception and afflict female or male partners respectively. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/19] These are also referred, respectively, as ''stree-shandha'' and ''nara-shandha'' in other texts. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 2/42-43]<ref name=Susruta/> (19)
=== Signs and symptoms in pregnancy indicating the sex of the child (Verse 25) ===
=== Signs and symptoms in pregnancy indicating the sex of the child (Verse 25) ===
Apart from the factors mentioned earlier, the sex of the child could also be influenced by certain traits of the mothers, such as milk secretion only from the right breast, walking with lifting right leg first, heaviness in right lateral abdomen, and ''romaraji'' (hair line) directed upwards - in all these cases, the mother will deliver a male child. If showing the opposite traits, the child would be a girl. If the abdomen is depressed on both sides and projected forward, while the woman would be showing mixed signs, the child born will be a hermaphrodite. It is also stated that if the yoni is thick in center the child will be a female, while if it is beautiful, protuberant and fatty then a male child will be born (KS.Su.28/6). Thoughts or mood of the mother during conception is also pointed by different scholars as key factors (CS.Sa.8/14;SS.Sa.2/46; AS.Sa.1/53; AH.Sa.1/31; BP.Pur.3/62). As already mentioned in this chapter, dreams, drinks, foods, conduct, and activities - if feminine, would result in a female child, if masculine, a male child, and if of mixed type, then a transgender child (CK on CS.Sa.2/24).
Apart from the factors mentioned earlier, the sex of the child could also be influenced by certain traits of the mothers, such as milk secretion only from the right breast, walking with lifting right leg first, heaviness in right lateral abdomen, and ''romaraji'' (hair line) directed upwards - in all these cases, the mother will deliver a male child. If showing the opposite traits, the child would be a girl. If the abdomen is depressed on both sides and projected forward, while the woman would be showing mixed signs, the child born will be a hermaphrodite. It is also stated that if the yoni is thick in center the child will be a female, while if it is beautiful, protuberant and fatty then a male child will be born. [K.S.Sutra Sthana 28/6]<ref name=Kashyapa/> Thoughts or mood of the mother during conception is also pointed by different scholars as key factors [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 8/14]; [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 2/46]<ref name=Susruta/>; [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/53]<ref name=Sangraha/>; [A.H.Sharira Sthana 1/31]<ref name=Hridaya/>; [B.P.Purvakanda.3/62]<ref name=Bhavaprakash/> As already mentioned in this chapter, dreams, drinks, foods, conduct, and activities - if feminine, would result in a female child, if masculine, a male child, and if of mixed type, then a transgender child. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/24]
Regarding the resemblance of the child, as mentioned in this chapter, certain attributes or traits of the kid could resemble the person the mother is attracted to during conception. (CK on CS.Sa.2/25). Physical resemblance depends largely on factors such as the four sets of four ''mahabhutas'' (except ''akasha''), ''matrija'' (maternal), ''pitrija'' (paternal), ''aharaja''- from the mother’s nutrition prior to conception, and ''atmaja''- past deeds. Though all these factors are equally responsible, the resemblance depends on the predominance of either of the maternal and paternal factors (CK on CS.Sa.2/25). Factors responsible for behavioral and mental resemblances are also similar to those responsible for physical resemblance, with genetic factors (''jati'' )also counted in. (CK on CS.Sa.2/25,GD on CS.Sa.2/25).
Regarding the resemblance of the child, as mentioned in this chapter, certain attributes or traits of the kid could resemble the person the mother is attracted to during conception. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/25] Physical resemblance depends largely on factors such as the four sets of four ''[[mahabhuta]]s'' (except ''[[akasha]]''), ''matrija'' (maternal), ''pitrija'' (paternal), ''aharaja''- from the mother’s nutrition prior to conception, and ''atmaja''- past deeds. Though all these factors are equally responsible, the resemblance depends on the predominance of either of the maternal and paternal factors. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/25] Factors responsible for behavioral and mental resemblances are also similar to those responsible for physical resemblance, with genetic factors (''jati'' )also counted in. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/25],[Gangadara on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/25]
=== Effects of ''shukra dosha'' (Verse 30) ===
=== Effects of ''[[shukra]] dosha'' (Verse 30) ===
Apart from the factors already analyzed earlier in the ''Vidhi Vimarsha'', ''shukra-dosha'' (CS.Su.28/18) and vitiated ''vata'' (CS.Su.12/8) including vitiated ''vata'' in ''shukra'' (CS.Ci.28/34) are said to be responsible for congenital abnormalities. Any part of the seed, or ''beeja'' (''beejabhaga''), if defective, would result in a defective body part, indicating chromosomal or genetic defects (CS.Sa.3/17). Defects in ''indriyas'' are attributed to ''daiva'', or fate, in the texts (CK.CS.Sa.3/17). Similarly, abnormalities in diet and behavior of women (CS.Sa.4/30), mental state of women (CS.Sa.2/25)) etc. influence the fetus. Bad deeds or sins (''paapa'') committed in the past life, vitiated ''vata'', non-fulfillment of ''dauhrida'', and skepticism of parents are also responsible for teratogenicity (SS.Sa.2/50-52).
Apart from the factors already analyzed earlier in the ''Vidhi Vimarsha'', ''[[shukra]]-dosha'' [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 28/18] and vitiated ''[[vata]]'' [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 12/8] including vitiated ''[[vata]]'' in ''[[shukra]]'' [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/34] are said to be responsible for congenital abnormalities. Any part of the seed, or ''beeja'' (''beejabhaga''), if defective, would result in a defective body part, indicating chromosomal or genetic defects. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira sthana]]3/17] Defects in ''[[indriya]]s'' are attributed to ''daiva'', or fate, in the texts. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira sthana]] 3/17] Similarly, abnormalities in diet and behavior of women [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 4/30], mental state of women [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/25] etc. influence the fetus. Bad deeds or sins (''paapa'') committed in the past life, vitiated ''[[vata]]'', non-fulfillment of ''dauhrida'', and skepticism of parents are also responsible for teratogenicity. [Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 2/50-52]<ref name=Susruta/>
Pregnancy before attaining 16 years of age, conception during first three days of menstrual cycle and bearing down in absence of labor pain are also responsible for abnormalities in the child (AS.Sa.1/5, KS.Sa.5/5). A woman not using proper ''rasas'' during ''ritukala'' delivers abnormal child (BhS.Sa 5/4). The couple suffering from ''udavarta'', consuming unwholesome diet (BhS.Su.12/15-16), vitiation of ''akasha'' as well as ''daiva'' could also cause abnormalities in the child (BhS.Sa.3/15-16). (30)
Pregnancy before attaining 16 years of age, conception during first three days of menstrual cycle and bearing down in absence of labor pain are also responsible for abnormalities in the child. [A.S.Sharira Sthana 1/5]<ref name=Sangraha/>, [K.S.Sharira Sthana 5/5]<ref name=Kashyapa/> A woman not using proper ''rasas'' during ''ritukala'' delivers abnormal child. [Bh.S.Sharira Sthana 5/4]<ref name=Bhela/> The couple suffering from ''udavarta'', consuming unwholesome diet [Bh.S.Sutra Sthana 12/15-16]<ref name=Bhela/>, vitiation of ''[[akasha]]'' as well as ''daiva'' could also cause abnormalities in the child. [Bh.Sa.Sharira Sthana 3/15-16]<ref name=Bhela/> (30)
=== Effect of past deeds (Verse 31-36) ===
=== Effect of past deeds (Verse 31-36) ===
''Manojavo''- ‘self’ due to pervasive, does not transmigrate but along with pace of mind and subtle ''bhutas'' it moves from dying to an originating body. It all happens due to the influence of past deeds (CK on CS.Sa.2/31). (31)
''Manojavo''- ‘self’ due to pervasive, does not transmigrate but along with pace of mind and subtle ''[[bhuta]]s'' it moves from dying to an originating body. It all happens due to the influence of past deeds. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/31] (31)
''Beejadharma''-the ''bhutas'' inheriting in soul is like that of seed, as seed produces similar sprout, the inheriting ''bhutas'' also produce similar form of the body (CK on CS.Sa.2/35).
''Beejadharma''-the ''bhutas'' inheriting in soul is like that of seed, as seed produces similar sprout, the inheriting ''bhutas'' also produce similar form of the body [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/35]
Chakrapani had accepted the views of Sankhya philosophy and stated that subtle body (''ativahika sharira'') gives rise to the gross body (''vyaktasharira''). Again, he explains that though the ''shukra'' and ''rajas'' is the cause of body (fetus), they only produce (fetus) when engrained in or combined with or attached with subtle body, and not otherwise. Thus, the subtle body (''sukshma bhuta'') inherited in soul combines with seeds (sperm and ovum) produces fetus, the cause of origin of body is being the past deeds (CK on CS.Sa.2/35).(35)
Chakrapani had accepted the views of Sankhya philosophy and stated that subtle body (''ativahika sharira'') gives rise to the gross body (''vyaktasharira''). Again, he explains that though the ''[[shukra]]'' and ''[[rajas]]'' is the cause of body (fetus), they only produce (fetus) when engrained in or combined with or attached with subtle body, and not otherwise. Thus, the subtle body (''sukshma bhuta'') inherited in soul combines with seeds (sperm and ovum) produces fetus, the cause of origin of body is being the past deeds. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/35).(35)
It is stated that due to ''tara-tama'' (quantitative) variations in ''rajas'' and ''tamas'' as well as multi focal ''karmas''; the variations occur in subtle bodies (CK on CS.Sa.2/36). (36)
It is stated that due to ''tara-tama'' (quantitative) variations in ''[[rajas]]'' and ''[[tamas]]'' as well as multi focal ''karmas''; the variations occur in subtle bodies. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/36] (36)
=== Role of mind (Verse 38) ===
=== Role of mind (Verse 38) ===
Mind is attached with all the subtle ''bhutas'' etc. due to the infliction of ''rajas'' and ''tamas''; the cause is being the devoid of ''tattvajnana''. Mind afflicted with ''doshas'' is responsible for transmigration (to other body) and inclination (to action related to ''dharma'' and ''adharma'') of soul thus cause for the whole universe. Again, the other factor responsible for such transmigration and inclination is potent past deeds (CK on CS.Sa.2/37-38). (38)
Mind is attached with all the subtle ''bhutas'' etc. due to the infliction of ''[[rajas]]'' and ''[[tamas]]''; the cause is being the devoid of ''tattvajnana''. Mind afflicted with ''[[dosha]]s'' is responsible for transmigration (to other body) and inclination (to action related to ''dharma'' and ''adharma'') of soul thus cause for the whole universe. Again, the other factor responsible for such transmigration and inclination is potent past deeds. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/37-38] (38)
=== Use of intellect, senses and time (Verse 41) ===
=== Use of intellect, senses and time (Verse 41) ===
Perverted (''mithyayoga''), negative (''ayoga'') and excessive (''atiyoga'') are three folds of ''vishamayoga'' of time etc. said as the cause of disorders (both psychic and somatic) described in the texts (CS.Su.1/54, Su.11/37, 43, Sa.1/98, 102,130-131). ''Samayoga'' (balanced combination) of time etc. is the cause of ''prakriti'' (normalcy) (CS.Su.11/43) or ''sukha'' (pleasure) (CS.Su.1/55, Sa.1/129). (40)
Perverted (''mithyayoga''), negative (''ayoga'') and excessive (''atiyoga'') are three folds of ''vishamayoga'' of time etc. said as the cause of disorders (both psychic and somatic) described in the texts. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 1/54], [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 11/37], [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 11/43], [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/98], [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/102],[Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/130-131]) ''Samayoga'' (balanced combination) of time etc. is the cause of ''prakriti'' (normalcy) [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 11/43] or ''sukha'' (pleasure). [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 1/55], [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/129) (40)
During salvation, the link between body and mind is totally disconnected, the stage where the continuity of disease recurrence is totally lost (CK on CS.Sa.2/41). (41)
During salvation, the link between body and mind is totally disconnected, the stage where the continuity of disease recurrence is totally lost. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/41] (41)
Union of physique and psyche can be achieved through the state of ''yoga'' (union with self) and ''moksha'' (emancipation). In this context role of restraint, memory and knowledge is discussed (CS.Sa.1/143- 147) (42)
Union of physique and psyche can be achieved through the state of ''yoga'' (union with self) and ''moksha'' (emancipation). In this context role of restraint, memory and knowledge is discussed [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]].1/143- 147] (42)
=== Control over body and mind to overcome diseases (Verse 43) ===
=== Control over body and mind to overcome diseases (Verse 43) ===
Preventive measures (''anagata chikitsa'') to be practiced regularly to overcome the diseases of body and mind. The word ''jitendriya'' is stated for abstinence from intellectual error and unbalanced use of senses. The disease occurring due to consequences of time cannot be prevented as the potent predestined (''daiva'') certainly cause disease at that moment (CK on CS.Sa.2/43).
Preventive measures (''anagata chikitsa'') to be practiced regularly to overcome the diseases of body and mind. The word ''jitendriya'' is stated for abstinence from intellectual error and unbalanced use of senses. The disease occurring due to consequences of time cannot be prevented as the potent predestined (''daiva'') certainly cause disease at that moment. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/43]
For preventive purpose, one should practice those livelihoods which are not contradictory to ''dharma'' (social and religious ethics) (CS.Su.5/104), bodily ''dhatus'' having been stabilized in normal condition, diseases do not arise (CS. Su.7/49), wholesome practice of diet, conduct and actions are also advised as preventive measures (CS.Su.7/60). Similarly avoiding intellectual errors etc. are to be followed for preventing exogenous diseases (Su.7/53-54). (43)
For preventive purpose, one should practice those livelihoods which are not contradictory to ''dharma'' (social and religious ethics) [Ch.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 5/104], bodily ''[[dhatu]]s'' having been stabilized in normal condition, diseases do not arise [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 7/49], wholesome practice of diet, conduct and actions are also advised as preventive measures [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 7/60] Similarly avoiding intellectual errors etc. are to be followed for preventing exogenous diseases. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 7/53-54] (43)
''Pravritti-hetu'' (cause of inclination) means initiating cause of disease. ''Vishama'' and ''sama'' interpreted as ''adharma'' and ''dharma'' respectively. Some consider cause of ''samsara'' (creation) and ''moksha'' (salvation) with ''pravritti'' and ''nivritti-hetu'' respectively (CK on CS.Sa.2/44)
''Pravritti-hetu'' (cause of inclination) means initiating cause of disease. ''Vishama'' and ''sama'' interpreted as ''adharma'' and ''dharma'' respectively. Some consider cause of ''samsara'' (creation) and ''moksha'' (salvation) with ''pravritti'' and ''nivritti-hetu'' respectively. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/44]
=== ''Daiva'' (Verse 44) ===
=== ''Daiva'' (Verse 44) ===
''Daiva'' is also said to be unavoidable, indestructible related to previous body and is continuing (CS.Su.11/31); cause of disease in (particular) time (CS.Sa.1/116).The coordination of ''daiva'' and ''purushakara'' (deeds self done in present life) in terms of inferiority etc. and their effects (CS.Vi.3/29-33) as well as influence to each other are well described (CS.Vi.3/33-35). Self deeds are also totally responsible for the disease (CS.Ni.7/19-23) (44)
''Daiva'' is also said to be unavoidable, indestructible related to previous body and is continuing [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 11/31]; cause of disease in (particular) time. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/116] The coordination of ''daiva'' and ''purushakara'' (deeds self done in present life) in terms of inferiority etc. and their effects [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 3/29-33] as well as influence to each other are well described. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 3/33-35] Self deeds are also totally responsible for the disease. [Cha.Sa.[[Nidana Sthana]] 7/19-23] (44)
Accumulated ''doshas'' should be evacuated in the first month of spring, rainy and winter to prevent the innate disorders (Su.7/46-50). (45)
Accumulated ''[[dosha]]s'' should be evacuated in the first month of spring, rainy and winter to prevent the innate disorders. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 7/46-50] (45)
''Sama''-equality in all living beings (CK on CS.Sa.2/46). (46)
''Sama''-equality in all living beings. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/46] (46)
Commentator interprets ''mati'' as ''smriti'' (memory), ''chinta'' (thoughts) etc., ''jnana'' as ''tattva-jnana'' (knowledge of the reality) (CK on CS.Sa.2/47). Different preventive measures against diseases are referred in many places (Su.7/47-50, 8/17-29, 28/34-44). (47)
Commentator interprets ''mati'' as ''[[smriti]]'' (memory), ''chinta'' (thoughts) etc., ''jnana'' as ''tattva-jnana'' (knowledge of the reality) [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 2/47] Different preventive measures against diseases are referred in many places. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 7/47-50],[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 8/17-29] ,[Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 28/34-44] (47)
== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==
#Dawn C.S, Text Book of Obstetrics and Neonatology, 12th Edt., Sreemoti Arati Dawn, p. 308.
#Dawn C.S, Text Book of Obstetrics and Neonatology, 12th Edt., Sreemoti Arati Dawn, p. 308.
==References==
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