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<big>''' Abstract </big>'''

<big>''' Abstract </big>'''

 

The chapter on [[Atisara Chikitsa]] (management of diarrhea) traces the historical origin of the disorder since the Vedic period and attributes it to eating of heavy and hot foods specially meat products. There are six types of diarrhea, three of which are caused by single ''dosha'' (''vataja, pittaja'' and ''kaphaja'') while a fourth is caused by the combination of all the three ''doshas''. The fifth and sixth types are caused due to psychological factors such as fear and grief. Some of these variants could be further classified based on their constituents, e.g., ''vataja atisara'' (diarrhea caused due to ''vata dosha'') is further divided into ''ama'' and ''nirama atisara'' (with or without mucoid substances diarrhea) and it has been emphasized not to stop the lose motions in initial or ''ama'' stage.  

The chapter on [[Atisara Chikitsa]] (management of diarrhea) traces the historical origin of the disorder since the Vedic period and attributes it to eating of heavy and hot foods specially meat products. There are six types of diarrhea, three of which are caused by single ''dosha'' (''vataja, pittaja'' and ''kaphaja'') while a fourth is caused by the combination of all the three ''doshas''. The fifth and sixth types are caused due to psychological factors such as fear and grief. Some of these variants could be further classified based on their constituents, e.g., ''vataja atisara'' (diarrhea caused due to ''vata dosha'') is further divided into ''ama'' and ''nirama atisara'' (with or without mucoid substances diarrhea) and it has been emphasized not to stop the lose motions in initial or ''ama'' stage.  

The etiology, pathology, signs and symptoms of each of these six types of diarrhea, along with their prognosis have been detailed here.The principles of treatment and complications associated with diarrhea, such as bleeding, suppuration, ulceration and  prolapsed anus are also described along with various measures to tackle the problems effectively.  

The etiology, pathology, signs and symptoms of each of these six types of diarrhea, along with their prognosis have been detailed here.The principles of treatment and complications associated with diarrhea, such as bleeding, suppuration, ulceration and  prolapsed anus are also described along with various measures to tackle the problems effectively.  

''Sangrahi'' (astringent or anti-diarrheals) therapies are not advisable in the initial stage of the disease because of presence of ''ama'' inside the body. Instead, mild laxative should be given to eliminate the accumulated ''doshas''. Diarrhea should be allowed to continue and should not be stopped by constipating or bowel binding drugs. The patients shall be managed with light to digest, nutritive and liquid diet regimen which enhances power of ''agni'' as well as it helps to stop diarrhea.  

''Sangrahi'' (astringent or anti-diarrheals) therapies are not advisable in the initial stage of the disease because of presence of ''ama'' inside the body. Instead, mild laxative should be given to eliminate the accumulated ''doshas''. Diarrhea should be allowed to continue and should not be stopped by constipating or bowel binding drugs. The patients shall be managed with light to digest, nutritive and liquid diet regimen which enhances power of ''agni'' as well as it helps to stop diarrhea. </div>

'''Keywords''': ''atisara, diarrhea, ama, nirama, sangrahi'' treatment, ''pichcha basti''.

'''Keywords''': ''atisara, diarrhea, ama, nirama, sangrahi'' treatment, ''pichcha basti''.

== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

 

''Grahani'' and ''atisara'' - both manifest due to the vitiation of ''agni'' and share common features of impairment of digestion resulting in indigestion and loose motions. Therefore, this chapter should logically precede or succeed the chapter on ''grahani''. But it is described three chapters after that on ''grahani''. The reason for this unusual sequencing of these topics is that since ''pandu'' is a common symptom and sequelae of the malabsorption syndrome (''grahani''), the chapter on ''pandu'' follows ''grahani''. Now, dyspnea (''shwasa'') is a major symptom of ''pandu,'' and thus, follows the chapter on ''pandu''. Similarly, chapter on ''kasa'' (cough) follows  ''shwasa'' because of their relationship. That explains the sequencing of ''grahani'' and ''atisara'' in [[Charak Samhita]].

''Grahani'' and ''atisara'' - both manifest due to the vitiation of ''agni'' and share common features of impairment of digestion resulting in indigestion and loose motions. Therefore, this chapter should logically precede or succeed the chapter on ''grahani''. But it is described three chapters after that on ''grahani''. The reason for this unusual sequencing of these topics is that since ''pandu'' is a common symptom and sequelae of the malabsorption syndrome (''grahani''), the chapter on ''pandu'' follows ''grahani''. Now, dyspnea (''shwasa'') is a major symptom of ''pandu,'' and thus, follows the chapter on ''pandu''. Similarly, chapter on ''kasa'' (cough) follows  ''shwasa'' because of their relationship. That explains the sequencing of ''grahani'' and ''atisara'' in [[Charak Samhita]].

''Atisara'' leads to the depletion of water and beneficial salts, causing dehydration in the body. This provokes ''vata'', and therefore requires taking special care of ''vata'', particularly if, the ''atisara'' is caused by all the three ''doshas''. Hydration of the body by means of oral administration of milk, buttermilk and various liquid preparations is advised. Goat’s milk is very useful in bloody diarrhea.The treatment of cholera and other dehydrating diarrheal diseases was revolutionized by the promotion of oral rehydration solution (ORS), the efficacy of which depends on the fact that glucose-facilitated absorption of sodium and water in the small intestine remains intact in the presence of cholera toxin. Where indicated, appropriate antimicrobial agents can shorten the duration of illness from 3–4 days to 24–36 h, hence it should be started depending on the course of illness.  Adequate prophylaxis measures should be taken to prevent the infectious diarrhoea.

''Atisara'' leads to the depletion of water and beneficial salts, causing dehydration in the body. This provokes ''vata'', and therefore requires taking special care of ''vata'', particularly if, the ''atisara'' is caused by all the three ''doshas''. Hydration of the body by means of oral administration of milk, buttermilk and various liquid preparations is advised. Goat’s milk is very useful in bloody diarrhea.The treatment of cholera and other dehydrating diarrheal diseases was revolutionized by the promotion of oral rehydration solution (ORS), the efficacy of which depends on the fact that glucose-facilitated absorption of sodium and water in the small intestine remains intact in the presence of cholera toxin. Where indicated, appropriate antimicrobial agents can shorten the duration of illness from 3–4 days to 24–36 h, hence it should be started depending on the course of illness.  Adequate prophylaxis measures should be taken to prevent the infectious diarrhoea.

 

== Sanskrit Text, Transliteration and English Translation ==

== Sanskrit Text, Transliteration and English Translation ==

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iti ha smAha bhagavAnAtreyaH||2||  

iti ha smAha bhagavAnAtreyaH||2||  

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Now we shall expound the chapter "Atisara chikitsa" (Management of diarrhea and associated disorders). Thus said Lord Atreya. [1-2]

Now we shall expound the chapter "Atisara chikitsa" (Management of diarrhea and associated disorders). Thus said Lord Atreya. [1-2]

 

=== Query by Agnivesha ===

=== Query by Agnivesha ===

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bhagavan! atIsArasyaprAgutpattinimittalakShaNopashamanAni prajAnugrahArthamAkhyAtumarhasIti||3||  

bhagavan! atIsArasyaprAgutpattinimittalakShaNopashamanAni prajAnugrahArthamAkhyAtumarhasIti||3||  

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On one occasion, when Lord Atreya was sitting on the northern slope of the Himalayas surrounded by the sages after completing his daily worship and oblations to the fire, Agnivesha approached him, offered his humble salutations to him, and requested him to expound the origin, etiology, signs and symptoms, and treatment of ''atisara'' (diarrhea) for the well-being of humanity [3]

On one occasion, when Lord Atreya was sitting on the northern slope of the Himalayas surrounded by the sages after completing his daily worship and oblations to the fire, Agnivesha approached him, offered his humble salutations to him, and requested him to expound the origin, etiology, signs and symptoms, and treatment of ''atisara'' (diarrhea) for the well-being of humanity [3]

 

=== Historical origins of ''atisara'' ===

=== Historical origins of ''atisara'' ===

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taM dRuShTvA pravyathitA bhUtagaNAH, teShAM copayogAdupAkRutAnAM gavAMgauravAdauShNyAdasAtmyatvAdashastopayogAccopahatAgnInAmupahatamanasAM [1] cAtIsAraHpUrvamutpannaH pRuShadhrayaj~je||4|| <br />

taM dRuShTvA pravyathitA bhUtagaNAH, teShAM copayogAdupAkRutAnAM gavAMgauravAdauShNyAdasAtmyatvAdashastopayogAccopahatAgnInAmupahatamanasAM [1] cAtIsAraHpUrvamutpannaH pRuShadhrayaj~je||4|| <br />

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After consideration of the above submission of Agnivesha, Lord Punarvasu said, “O Agnivesha, listen to me. I shall give a detailed response to your question.   

After consideration of the above submission of Agnivesha, Lord Punarvasu said, “O Agnivesha, listen to me. I shall give a detailed response to your question.   

In the Vedic age/ancient times, sacrificial animals used to get released in the wild soon after the recitation of the sacrificial mantras, and these animals were not killed during the course of the sacrifice (''yajna''). However, in the subsequent periods following the reign of Daksha Prajapati, the sons of Manu named Narishyana, Nabhag, Ikshvaku, Nriga, and Sharyati, sacrifice of these animals became a part of the ''yajna'' (sacrificial ritual) at their instinctive acquiescence. After that, during the sacrifice over a long course of time performed by Prushadra (name of a king), as goats were not obtainable, even the sacred cows were also offered up for sacrifice. This deviation bewildered (or disturbed) all of humanity leading to grief. When the flesh of these sanctified cows were eaten, by the heavy, hot and incompatible to human nature properties of their flesh, as well as the use of what was not prescribed by the scriptures, the people started suffering from the loss of their ability to digest and losing their mental equilibrium, resulting in  ''atisara'' (diarrhea). Thus, diarrhea originated from the ''yajna'' performed by Prushadhra [4]  

In the Vedic age/ancient times, sacrificial animals used to get released in the wild soon after the recitation of the sacrificial mantras, and these animals were not killed during the course of the sacrifice (''yajna''). However, in the subsequent periods following the reign of Daksha Prajapati, the sons of Manu named Narishyana, Nabhag, Ikshvaku, Nriga, and Sharyati, sacrifice of these animals became a part of the ''yajna'' (sacrificial ritual) at their instinctive acquiescence. After that, during the sacrifice over a long course of time performed by Prushadra (name of a king), as goats were not obtainable, even the sacred cows were also offered up for sacrifice. This deviation bewildered (or disturbed) all of humanity leading to grief. When the flesh of these sanctified cows were eaten, by the heavy, hot and incompatible to human nature properties of their flesh, as well as the use of what was not prescribed by the scriptures, the people started suffering from the loss of their ability to digest and losing their mental equilibrium, resulting in  ''atisara'' (diarrhea). Thus, diarrhea originated from the ''yajna'' performed by Prushadhra [4]  

 

=== ''Vataja atisara'' ===

=== ''Vataja atisara'' ===

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pakvaM vA vibaddhamalpAlpaM sashabdaM sashUlaphenapicchAparikartikaM hRuShTaromA viniHshvasa~jshuShkamukhaH kaTyUrutrikajAnupRuShThapArshvashUlI bhraShTagudomuhurmuhurvigrathitamupaveshyate purIShaM vAtAt; tamAhuranugrathitamityeke,vAtAnugrathitavarcastvAt||5|| <br />

pakvaM vA vibaddhamalpAlpaM sashabdaM sashUlaphenapicchAparikartikaM hRuShTaromA viniHshvasa~jshuShkamukhaH kaTyUrutrikajAnupRuShThapArshvashUlI bhraShTagudomuhurmuhurvigrathitamupaveshyate purIShaM vAtAt; tamAhuranugrathitamityeke,vAtAnugrathitavarcastvAt||5|| <br />

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*''Vata'' dominant ''atisara'' occurs if a person with ''vata'' dominant constitution indulges in following: Exposure to strong wind, excess sunlight, and physical exercise;

*''Vata'' dominant ''atisara'' occurs if a person with ''vata'' dominant constitution indulges in following: Exposure to strong wind, excess sunlight, and physical exercise;

*Indulgence in dry and rough or less quantities of food (''pramitashana'') or irregular meals  or strong alcoholic drinks or excessive sexual intercourse; and

*Indulgence in dry and rough or less quantities of food (''pramitashana'') or irregular meals  or strong alcoholic drinks or excessive sexual intercourse; and

According to some physicians, this type of diarrhea is also called ''anugrathita-atisara'' because of evacuation the scybalous stool. [5]  

According to some physicians, this type of diarrhea is also called ''anugrathita-atisara'' because of evacuation the scybalous stool. [5]  

 

=== ''Pittaja atisara'' ===

=== ''Pittaja atisara'' ===

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kRuShNaM raktapittopahitamatidurgandhamatisAryate [1] purIShaM,tRuShNAdAhasvedamUrcchAshUlabradhnasantApapAkaparIta iti pittAtisAraH||6|| <br />

kRuShNaM raktapittopahitamatidurgandhamatisAryate [1] purIShaM,tRuShNAdAhasvedamUrcchAshUlabradhnasantApapAkaparIta iti pittAtisAraH||6|| <br />

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A person of ''pittaja'' constitution, by indulging in the following etiological factors, gets afflicted by ''pittaja atisara'':

A person of ''pittaja'' constitution, by indulging in the following etiological factors, gets afflicted by ''pittaja atisara'':

*Excessive intake of sour, saline, pungent, alkaline (''kshara''), hot and sharp (''teekshna'') ingredients;

*Excessive intake of sour, saline, pungent, alkaline (''kshara''), hot and sharp (''teekshna'') ingredients;

*The patient suffers from morbid thirst, burning sensation, excessive sweating, fainting, colic pain and hot sensation; and

*The patient suffers from morbid thirst, burning sensation, excessive sweating, fainting, colic pain and hot sensation; and

*There is suppuration of the anus [6]

*There is suppuration of the anus [6]

 

=== ''Kaphaja atisara'' ===

=== ''Kaphaja atisara'' ===

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tasya rUpANi- snigdhaM shvetaM picchilaM tantumadAmaM guru durgandhaMshleShmopahitamanubaddhashUlamalpAlpamabhIkShNamatisAryate sapravAhikaM,gurUdaragudabastiva~gkShaNadeshaH kRute~apyakRutasa~jj~jaH salomaharShaH sotkleshonidrAlasyaparItaH sadano~annadveShI ceti shleShmAtisAraH||7|| <br />

tasya rUpANi- snigdhaM shvetaM picchilaM tantumadAmaM guru durgandhaMshleShmopahitamanubaddhashUlamalpAlpamabhIkShNamatisAryate sapravAhikaM,gurUdaragudabastiva~gkShaNadeshaH kRute~apyakRutasa~jj~jaH salomaharShaH sotkleshonidrAlasyaparItaH sadano~annadveShI ceti shleShmAtisAraH||7|| <br />

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A person of ''kaphaja'' type of constitution indulging in the following factors experiences the manifestation of ''kaphaja atisara'':

A person of ''kaphaja'' type of constitution indulging in the following factors experiences the manifestation of ''kaphaja atisara'':

*Consumption of heavy, sweet, cold and unctuous ingredients in excess;

*Consumption of heavy, sweet, cold and unctuous ingredients in excess;

These are the specific features of ''kaphaja atisara''. [7]

These are the specific features of ''kaphaja atisara''. [7]

 

=== ''Sannipataja atisara'' ===

=== ''Sannipataja atisara'' ===

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atishItasnigdharUkShoShNagurukharakaThinaviShamaviruddhAsAtmyabhojanAdabhojanAtkAlAtItabhojanAd yatki~jcidabhyavaharaNAtpraduShTamadyapAnIyapAnAdatimadyapAnAdasaMshodhanAt pratikarmaNAMviShamagamanAdanupacArAjjvalanAdityapavanasalilAtisevanAdasvapnA-datisvapnAdvegavidhAraNAdRutuviparyayAdayathAbalamArambhAdbhayashokacittodvegAtiyogAtkRumishoShajvarArshovikArAtikarShaNAdvA vyApannAgnestrayo doShAH prakupitA bhUyaevAgnimupahatya pakvAshayamanupravishyAtIsAraM sarvadoShali~ggaM janayanti||8||  

atishItasnigdharUkShoShNagurukharakaThinaviShamaviruddhAsAtmyabhojanAdabhojanAtkAlAtItabhojanAd yatki~jcidabhyavaharaNAtpraduShTamadyapAnIyapAnAdatimadyapAnAdasaMshodhanAt pratikarmaNAMviShamagamanAdanupacArAjjvalanAdityapavanasalilAtisevanAdasvapnA-datisvapnAdvegavidhAraNAdRutuviparyayAdayathAbalamArambhAdbhayashokacittodvegAtiyogAtkRumishoShajvarArshovikArAtikarShaNAdvA vyApannAgnestrayo doShAH prakupitA bhUyaevAgnimupahatya pakvAshayamanupravishyAtIsAraM sarvadoShali~ggaM janayanti||8||  

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The causative factors of ''sannipataja atisara'' (diarrhea caused by the simultaneous vitiation of all the three ''doshas'') are as follows:  

The causative factors of ''sannipataja atisara'' (diarrhea caused by the simultaneous vitiation of all the three ''doshas'') are as follows:  

*Intake of excessively cold, unctuous, ununctuous, hot, heavy, coarse and hard ingredients;

*Intake of excessively cold, unctuous, ununctuous, hot, heavy, coarse and hard ingredients;

Because of the above mentioned causative factors, ''agni'' (power of digestion) gets vitiated as a result of which all the three ''doshas'' get aggravated. These aggravated ''doshas'' in turn further afflict the ''agni'', and having entered into ''pakvashaya'' (colon) cause ''sannipataja atisara''. [8]

Because of the above mentioned causative factors, ''agni'' (power of digestion) gets vitiated as a result of which all the three ''doshas'' get aggravated. These aggravated ''doshas'' in turn further afflict the ''agni'', and having entered into ''pakvashaya'' (colon) cause ''sannipataja atisara''. [8]

 

=== Signs and symptoms of ''sannipataja atisara'' ===

=== Signs and symptoms of ''sannipataja atisara'' ===

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ebhirvarNairatisAryamANaM sopadravamAturamasAdhyo~ayamiti pratyAcakShIta; tadyathA-pakvashoNitAbhaM [2] yakRutkhaNDopamaM medomAMsodakasannikAshaMdadhighRutamajjatailavasAkShIravesavArAbhamatinIlamatiraktamatikRuShNamudakamivAcchaMpunarmecakAbhamatisnigdhaM haritanIlakaShAyavarNaM karburamAvilaM picchilaM tantumadAmaMcandrakopagatamatikuNapapUtipUyagandhyAmAmamatsyagandhi makShikAkAntaM [3]kuthitabahudhAtusrAvamalpapurIShamapurIShaM vA~atisAryamANaMtRuShNAdAhajvarabhramatamakahikkAshvAsAnubandhamativedanamavedanaM vA srastapakvagudaMpatitagudavaliM muktanAlamatikShINabalamAMsashoNitaMsarvaparvAsthishUlinamarocakAratipralApasammohaparItaM sahasoparatavikAramatisAriNamacikitsyaMvidyAt; iti sannipAtAtisAraH||9||  

ebhirvarNairatisAryamANaM sopadravamAturamasAdhyo~ayamiti pratyAcakShIta; tadyathA-pakvashoNitAbhaM [2] yakRutkhaNDopamaM medomAMsodakasannikAshaMdadhighRutamajjatailavasAkShIravesavArAbhamatinIlamatiraktamatikRuShNamudakamivAcchaMpunarmecakAbhamatisnigdhaM haritanIlakaShAyavarNaM karburamAvilaM picchilaM tantumadAmaMcandrakopagatamatikuNapapUtipUyagandhyAmAmamatsyagandhi makShikAkAntaM [3]kuthitabahudhAtusrAvamalpapurIShamapurIShaM vA~atisAryamANaMtRuShNAdAhajvarabhramatamakahikkAshvAsAnubandhamativedanamavedanaM vA srastapakvagudaMpatitagudavaliM muktanAlamatikShINabalamAMsashoNitaMsarvaparvAsthishUlinamarocakAratipralApasammohaparItaM sahasoparatavikAramatisAriNamacikitsyaMvidyAt; iti sannipAtAtisAraH||9||  

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The three aggravated ''doshas'' cause excessive vitiation of ''dhatus'' (tissue elements, e.g., ''rakta'' (blood)), resulting in the appearance of different colors (in the stool). The nature of these colors depends upon the nature of the vitiated ''dhatus'' and ''doshas''.  

The three aggravated ''doshas'' cause excessive vitiation of ''dhatus'' (tissue elements, e.g., ''rakta'' (blood)), resulting in the appearance of different colors (in the stool). The nature of these colors depends upon the nature of the vitiated ''dhatus'' and ''doshas''.  

   

   

Such a patient should be rejected for the treatment (as it is incurable). [9]

Such a patient should be rejected for the treatment (as it is incurable). [9]

 

=== Guidelines for starting treatment ===

=== Guidelines for starting treatment ===

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tamasAdhyatAmasamprAptaM cikitsed yathApradhAnopakrameNa hetUpashayadoShavisheShaparIkShayAceti||10||  

tamasAdhyatAmasamprAptaM cikitsed yathApradhAnopakrameNa hetUpashayadoShavisheShaparIkShayAceti||10||  

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The patient who has not yet reached the stage of absolute incurability should be properly treated after the examination of causative factors, ''upashaya'' (pacifying factors) and nature of the aggravation of specific ''dosha''. In this condition, the most aggravated ''dosha'' should be treated in the beginning followed by the treatment of the other less aggravated ''doshas''. [10]

The patient who has not yet reached the stage of absolute incurability should be properly treated after the examination of causative factors, ''upashaya'' (pacifying factors) and nature of the aggravation of specific ''dosha''. In this condition, the most aggravated ''dosha'' should be treated in the beginning followed by the treatment of the other less aggravated ''doshas''. [10]

 

=== Exogenous (psychological) diarrhea ===

=== Exogenous (psychological) diarrhea ===

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tattayorlakShaNaM vAyoryadatIsAralakShaNam||11||<br />

tattayorlakShaNaM vAyoryadatIsAralakShaNam||11||<br />

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The exogenous type of ''atisara'' (diarrhea) is of mental origin and is of two types. One of these is caused by fear and the other is caused by grief. Their signs and symptoms are similar to those of the ''vatika'' type of ''atisara''. Thus ''atisara'' or diarrhea is of two types, viz., ''nija'' or endogenous (like ''vataja, pittaja, kaphaja'' and ''sannipataja atisara'' and ''agantuja/manasa'' or exogenous [11]

The exogenous type of ''atisara'' (diarrhea) is of mental origin and is of two types. One of these is caused by fear and the other is caused by grief. Their signs and symptoms are similar to those of the ''vatika'' type of ''atisara''. Thus ''atisara'' or diarrhea is of two types, viz., ''nija'' or endogenous (like ''vataja, pittaja, kaphaja'' and ''sannipataja atisara'' and ''agantuja/manasa'' or exogenous [11]

 

=== Management of exogenous (psychological) diarrhea ===

=== Management of exogenous (psychological) diarrhea ===

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pravakShyAmyanupUrveNa yathAvattannibodhata||13|| <br />

pravakShyAmyanupUrveNa yathAvattannibodhata||13|| <br />

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The following therapies help to cure ''agantuja/manasa'' or exogenous:

The following therapies help to cure ''agantuja/manasa'' or exogenous:

Both fear and grief causes aggravation of ''vata'' instantaneously. ''Vata'' alleviating drugs and therapies should be administered for the treatment of exogenous ''atisara''. The patient suffering from diarrhea caused by fear (''bhayaja'') should be exhilarated.  The patient suffering from diarrhea caused by ''shoka'' (grief) should be consoled [12-13]  

Both fear and grief causes aggravation of ''vata'' instantaneously. ''Vata'' alleviating drugs and therapies should be administered for the treatment of exogenous ''atisara''. The patient suffering from diarrhea caused by fear (''bhayaja'') should be exhilarated.  The patient suffering from diarrhea caused by ''shoka'' (grief) should be consoled [12-13]  

 

=== Principles of treatment ===

=== Principles of treatment ===

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la~gghanaM cAlpadoShANAM prashastamatisAriNAm||19|| <br />

la~gghanaM cAlpadoShANAM prashastamatisAriNAm||19|| <br />

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The following principles of treatment are used in management of ''atisara'':

The following principles of treatment are used in management of ''atisara'':

#Harrison’s principles of internal medicine 17th Ed. (2008) Ed. by  Fauci Kasper D.L., A.S., Longo D.L., Braunwal Eugene, Hauser S.J., Jameson J.L.. Joseph Loscalzo., Pub. MacGraw-Hill USA, Chapter 128. Acute Infectious Diarrheal Diseases and Bacterial Food Poisoning  

#Harrison’s principles of internal medicine 17th Ed. (2008) Ed. by  Fauci Kasper D.L., A.S., Longo D.L., Braunwal Eugene, Hauser S.J., Jameson J.L.. Joseph Loscalzo., Pub. MacGraw-Hill USA, Chapter 128. Acute Infectious Diarrheal Diseases and Bacterial Food Poisoning  

#Harrison’s principles of internal medicine 17th Ed. (2008) Ed. by  Fauci Kasper D.L., A.S., Longo D.L., Braunwal Eugene, Hauser S.J., Jameson J.L.. Joseph Loscalzo., Pub. MacGraw-Hill USA, Vol.-2, Chapter 338.

#Harrison’s principles of internal medicine 17th Ed. (2008) Ed. by  Fauci Kasper D.L., A.S., Longo D.L., Braunwal Eugene, Hauser S.J., Jameson J.L.. Joseph Loscalzo., Pub. MacGraw-Hill USA, Vol.-2, Chapter 338.

 

== References ==

== References ==