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These are fallacies that make a [[hetu]] (reason or tool) to appear valid, when it is actually invalid. These can hinder the process of inference. Nyaya philosophy has explained 5 types of fallacies or hetvabhasa. These are savyabhichari (inappropriate reason), viruddhi (contradictory reason), satpratipaksha (inferentially contradicted middle term i.e. it is contradicted by inferential knowledge), asiddha (unproved or inconclusive [[hetu]]), badhita (non-inferentially contradicted middle term or absurd [[hetu]] i.e. it can be disproved by other [[pramana]] like pratyaksha etc.). These fallacies can make false interpretation and limits the knowledge through anumana.
These are fallacies that make a [[hetu]] (reason or tool) to appear valid, when it is actually invalid. These can hinder the process of inference. Nyaya philosophy has explained 5 types of fallacies or hetvabhasa. These are savyabhichari (inappropriate reason), viruddhi (contradictory reason), satpratipaksha (inferentially contradicted middle term i.e. it is contradicted by inferential knowledge), asiddha (unproved or inconclusive [[hetu]]), badhita (non-inferentially contradicted middle term or absurd [[hetu]] i.e. it can be disproved by other [[pramana]] like pratyaksha etc.). These fallacies can make false interpretation and limits the knowledge through anumana.
==Importance of concept of anumana==
The persons who are knowledgeable and well versed with the scriptures or literary texts ([[aaptopadesha pramana]]) require only pratyaksha (direct perception) and anumana pramana (inference) for examination of any phenomena like disease. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 4/5] The [[pratyaksha pramana]] or sensorial knowledge has some limitations. Direct observations cannot always provide with sufficient information. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 11/7] Hence, it is necessary to understand the phenomena by inferential knowledge and logical reasoning with the help of anumana pramana. The entities like sense organs ([[indriya]]) themselves cannot be assessed by [[pratyaksha pramana]] and are best assessed using anumana pramana. [Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 25/22-23] While assessing the numbers and properties of various anatomical structures like tendons (snayu) , joints (sandhi) , muscles (peshi) etc. the [[pratyaksha pramana]] is not always sufficient. Here anumana or tarka can be helpful to understand the exact number. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 7/14] Anumana is necessary for the understanding of complex entities like [[atma]]. It cannot be properly assessed by yukti and aaptopadesha. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/44] Similarly the functions of different [[dosha]] , their subtypes , [[dhatu]] are assessed through the means of anumana only. [Cha.Sa.[[Sutra Sthana]] 27/3]
Following phenomena can be observed through the means of anumana pramana. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 4/8]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table 1: Phenomena assessed through inference
|-
! Sr. No. !! Reference quote !! Entity to be assessed !! Method of assessment
|-
| | 1. || Agnim jaranshaktya ||Assessment of digestion ||Assessment of power of digestion by quality and quantity of food consumed
|-
| |2.||Balam vyayamshaktya||Assessment of physical strength||Examined with the capacity to exercise
|-
| |3.|| Shrotradeeni- shabdadiarthagrahanena ||Assessment of the functioning of the sense organs ||Assessed by the clarity and accuracy of perception of their respective objects.
|-
| |4.|| Mano- artheshuavyabhicharnena ||Assessment of functioning of [[mana]] or mental perception||Absence of altered perceptions by the sensory organs indicate the rightful functioning of [[mana]].
|-
| |5.|| Vijnanam vyavsayena ||Assessment of skill set or knowledge of person ||Assessed by one’s occupation and knowledge.
|-
| |6.||Rajah sangena || Assessment of [[rajas]] [[guna]] or affection ||Involvement in material pleasures or attachments
|-
| |7.||Moham avijnanena||Assessment of moha or ignorance ||Assessed by lack of knowledge
|-
| |8.|| Krodham abhidrohena ||Assessment of anger ||Assessed by choosing measures for revenge or revenging attitude
|-
| |9.||Shokam dainyena ||Assessment of sorrow ||Assessment of grief is done by inability to think critically or sorrowful disposition
|-
| |10.|| Harsham aamoden ||Assessment of pleasure ||Assessed by level of happiness
|-
| |11.|| Preetim toshena ||Assessment of affection or love ||Assessed by level of satisfaction
|-
| |12.|| Bhayam vishadena ||Assessment of fear ||Assessed by duration and severity of anxiety
|-
| |13.|| Dhairyam avishadena || Assessment of patience or strength of mind||Assessed by ability to face the adversities without fear
|-
| |14.|| Veeryam utthanena|| Assessment of bravery or vitality||Assessed by ability to cope up with the situation
|-
| |15.|| Avasthanam avibhramena ||Assessment of stability of mind ||Stability assessed by absence of doubts and confusions
|-
| |16.|| Shraddha abhiprayena ||Assessment of faith ||Faith or desire is assessed by the act of requisition.
|-
| |17.|| Medha grahnena ||Assessment of intelligence ||Assessed by ability to retain the information
|-
| |18.|| Sangyanam grahanena || Assessment of orientation or recognitive power||Assessed by ability to identify and comprehend the object
|-
| |19.|| Smriti smarnena || Assessment of memory||Assessed by ability to recall the facts
|-
| |20.|| Hriyam apatrapnena ||Assessment of level of shyness ||Assessment from bashfulness
|-
| |21.|| Sheelam anusheelnena ||Assessment of character ||Assessed by habits of the person
|-
| |22.|| Dvesham pratishedhena ||Assessment of hatred ||Assessed by repulsion or disinclination towards the thing
|-
| |23.|| Upadhi anubandhena || Assessment of deception||Assessment of subsequent manifestation
|-
| |24.|| Dhriti alaulyena || Assessment of consistency or determination ||Assessed by firmness and stability of thoughts
|-
| |25.|| Vashyata vidheyataya ||Assessment of obedience ||Assessed by compliance and faithful following
|-
| |26.|| Vaya kalena ||Assessment of age ||Assessed with the help of chronological time
|-
| |27.||Bhakti deshena ||Assessment of liking towards a particular food ||Assessed by habitat of living
|-
| |28.||Satmya upashayena || Assessment of habituation ||Assessed by the level of wholesomeness
|-
| |29.|| Vyadhi vedanaya ||Assessment of disease ||Assessed by signs and symptoms
|-
| |30.|| GoodhalingaVyadhi Upashaya-anupashayabhyam || Assessment of diseases that are difficult to diagnose||Assessed by effectiveness of treatment in terms of relief or no relief/ aggravation.
|-
| |31.||Dosha pramana || Assessment of [[dosha]] pramana or morbidity||Assessed by the level of consumption of provocative factors
|-
| |32.|| Ayushakshaya arishtai ||Assessment of imminent death ||Assessed by the presence of [[arishta]] lakshana or poor prognostic signs
|-
| |33.|| Shreyastwam kalyanabhiniveshena ||Assessment of impending prosperity ||Assessed by the righteous deeds done
|-
| |34.|| Amalam sattvam ||Assessment of sattvika qualities of [[mana]] ||Assessed by absence of impairments like attachment, envy, anger etc.
|-
| |35.|| Grahanyastu mridudarunatwam || The patho-physiology of organ [[grahani]]||Assessed through the interrogation of the patient.
|-
| |36.|| Swapnadarshana || Assessment of dreams||Assessed through the interrogation of the patient.
|-
| |37.||Abhipraya ||Assessment of goals ||Assessed through the interrogation of the patient.
|-
| |38.|| Dwesha, Sukha- Dukha || Assessment of feelings like hatred (dwesha) , happiness (sukha) , sorrow (dukkha)||Assessed through the interrogation of the patient.
|-
|}
'''Importance in gustatory examinations (rasanendriyapariksha)''' [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 4/7]
Taste of various tissues in the body of the patient is the object of the gustatory sense organ. It can be ascertained by inference only and not by direct observation. The taste in the mouth of the patient should be ascertained by interrogation. It is suggestive of vitiation of [[dosha]] in body. Sweet taste of the body fluids can be inferred, when flies are attracted towards the body. In the case of bleeding, if there is a doubt about the pure or vitiated nature of the blood, then it should be resolved by giving the blood to dogs and crow to taste. Intake of the blood by dogs and crows indicates its purity and rejection indicates that the blood is vitiated by [[pitta]], i.e. the patient is suffering from bleeding disorders([[raktapitta]]). Similarly, other tastes in the patient’s body can be inferred. It is also useful in determining the [[arishta]] lakshana pertaining to tongue (rasanendriya). [Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]] 3/20]
'''Importance in diagnosis'''
[[Pratyaksha pramana]] has many limitations in knowledge perception about past and future scenarios. Hence while searching for the past history of patient and deciding the prognosis, the physician has to refer to the inferential knowledge or anumana. Various physiological entities like [[agni]] (digestion), [[bala]] (strength), [[indriya]] shakti (sensorium), [[medha]] (cognition), [[smriti]] (memory) can be assessed using the principles of anumana pramana. Pathological conditions like quantification of [[dosha]] (dosha pramana), lifespan (ayushya-kshaya), nature of [[grahani]] (grahani swarupa), nature of pain (vyadhi-vedana) are assessed through anumana pramana.
In surgery, anumana is applied to search foreign body that is deeply embedded in tissues and not visible to the naked eye.[Dalhana on Su.Su.1/16]<ref name=Susruta/> If ghee applied over the affected part melts faster than that of unaffected part, this indicates the presence of foreign body. The inference like the overlying ghee melts due to heat and inflammation.
Signs of a disease can be observed by [[pratyaksha pramana]], but symptoms are assessed using the deliberation of anumana pramana. This makes the anumana pramana more effective in diagnosis of mental disorders (manasa roga). It also helps in predicting the prognosis, chance of survival of the patient and outcomes of the treatment in the future. Anumana helps in assessment of subtle individual entities like [[ojas]], [[dhatu]], [[dosha]], [[mana]], [[atma]] that cannot be directly perceived by sensorial faculties, but only by referring to their characteristics and functions.
Anumana is a tool for the assessment of imbalance of the [[dosha]] in terms of vriddhi (hyper functioning) and kshaya (hypo functioning), [[dhatu]] and [[mala]] etc. entities. [Su.Sa.Sutra Sthana. 15/39]<ref name=Susruta/> According to the contemporary science, the laboratory parameters are set to determine the body pathology. For instance, the rise in ESR (erythrocyte sedimentation rate) depicts inflammation in the body.<ref>Alende-Castro V, Alonso-Sampedro M, Vazquez-Temprano N, Tuñez C, Rey D, García-Iglesias C, et al. Factors influencing erythrocyte sedimentation rate in adults. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019 Aug 23;98(34):e16816.</ref> Also the symptoms like rise in body temperature denote occurrence of fever. Thus the anumana or inference is most pivotal in making the diagnosis of any disease. For instance in case of fever of exogenous origin (agantuja jwara) , the symptoms can be best understood using the means of anumana. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 3/121]
'''Importance in treatment'''
The symptoms put forth by the patient should be inferred by the physician to assess the general condition, prognosis and treatment response in a patient. The treatment plan is initiated and executed by assuming the factors like [[dosha]], [[kala]], [[bala]], disease condition (vyadhi avastha) by the physician.
The outcome of the treatment in a patient is also assessed by the physician, while prescribing the medication. This underlines the importance of anumana in treatment. The categories of medicine (mahakashaya) described in the text are exemplary. The physician can use numerous other herbs and modalities based on his expertise according to the condition of patients by applying anumana and yukti pramana. [Cha.Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 4/20] So the inferential knowledge of the physician coupled with logical reasoning is pre-requisite for wholesome treatment. It is most important tool in assessing the lifespan , impending death or morbidity status of the individual. Hence it is basis of the determination of near death signs (arishta lakshana). [Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]] 4/3-4] [Cha.Sa.[[Indriya Sthana]] 2/14]
'''Importance in teaching and learning methodology'''
Anumana pramana involves drawing inference and logical reasoning on the basis of previously experienced or observed facts. Thus it explores the cognitive and psychomotor domain of learning. It is thus necessary for development of skills of analysis, logical reasoning and inductive thinking in the learner.
'''Anumana pramana as research tool'''
The anumana pramana helps the researcher to establish a cause and effect relationship acknowledging the information in all three phases of time i.e. past, present and future. It utilizes the analytical methods of logical reasoning to solve the domain of research question.<ref>Chauhan A, Semwal DK, Mishra SP, Semwal RB. Ayurvedic research and methodology: Present status and future strategies. Ayu. 2015;36(4):364–9.</ref> Anumana pramana has a wide applicability in research as it is concerned with application of deductive, inductive and analogical reasons for analysis of facts observed.<ref>Suresh Babu, Classical methods of research, concept of pratyaksha etc. pramana, Comprehensive Research methodology for Ayurveda Scholars, first edition, Chaukhamba orientalia, Varanasi, edited 2013, Page no 47</ref>
The five components of a statement (pancha-avayavivakya) as a part of parartha anumana is also an excellent example of presentation or preparation of research module. Proposition (pratijna) is initial preposition of research question or hypothesis. [[Hetu]] are comparable to research methods and relation of the subject with outcomes. Example (udaharana) is the review of previous work done which makes the matter easily understandable by stating examples. Application (upanaya) involves the application of general rule to the particular concept similar to the discussion part of research work. conclusion (nigamana) is conclusive statement regarding the phenomena.
The three types of anumana i.e. purvavata, sheshavata and samanytodrishta resemble the observational research designs like cohort (prospective study), case control (retrospective study) and cross sectional studies (prevalence study) respectively.<ref>Thiese M. S. (2014). Observational and interventional study design types; an overview. Biochemia medica, 24(2), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2014.022</ref> The process of research and testing of hypothesis itself denotes the application of the evidence obtained in the sample studied to the population. Thus the inference regarding the population is made from information obtained from a sample. The statistical analysis also helps to determine the validity of research by comparing the data or information obtained with previous knowledge.<ref>Kass RE. Statistical Inference: The Big Picture. Stat Sci. 2011 Feb 1;26(1):1–9.</ref> Thus the term statistical inference or inferential statistics rightfully glorify the importance of anumana pramana.
The karya-karana bhava in [[Ayurveda]] mentions the cause-effect relationship pertaining to any phenomena. This is the basis of designing any research and stating a hypothesis. The ten fold examination factors (dashavidhapariksha bhava) thus help in inferring this relationship in structured and stepwise manner resembling the research protocol. [Cha.Sa.[[Vimana Sthana]] 8/68]
==Current researches==
#Soni et. al in their article entitled "Ancient methods of research in Ayurveda” have explained the utility of anumana pramana in research methodology and therapeutics.<ref>Soni K, Ranjan R, Pandey VS. Ancient methods of research in Ayurveda. International Journal of Ayurveda and Pharma Research. 2020 Nov 25;36–46.</ref>
#Pooja T et.al. in their work entitled anumana pramana and its scope as a diagnostic and research tool have explored the potential of anumana pramana as diagnostic and research tool indicating its wide applicability in present scenario.<ref>Pooja T, et.al, Anumana pramana and its scope as a diagnostic and research tool. Int J Health Sci Res. 2020; 10(10):264-278.</ref>
#Prof.Rangaprasad Bhat has elaborated the concept of anumana pramana in detail with respect to its types, description and different examples.<ref>MD DJVH. Anumana Pramana: Types, Description, Ayurveda Examples [Internet]. Easy Ayurveda. 2017 [cited 2022 Feb 1]. Available from: https://www.easyayurveda.com/2017/04/23/anumana-pramana/</ref>
#Bhalerao et.al. in their letter to editor entitled “Bloom's taxonomy reiterates Pramana” explores the application of anumana pramana in pedagogy and it involves the application as robust correlative association for veracity and the development of correlative competency in learning.<ref>Bloom’s taxonomy reiterates Pramana [Internet]. [cited 2022 Feb 1]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5377477/</ref>
#Patil A., Patil M. discussed the importance of anumana pramana in research methodology based on the concept of kaarya-kaarana siddhanta in the article entitled ‘The scope of anumana pramana as a research tool.<ref>Patil A, Patil M Scope of Anumana Pramana As A Research Tool, JETIR August 2021, Volume 8, Issue 8, Page no. 46 to 48 .</ref>
#Patil S. et al mentioned anumana pramana as an important method of examination having wide applicability in present scenario.<ref>Patil S, Baghel A, Dwivedi R. Methods of Examination and Investigation in Ayurveda : A review in reference to Pramana Vijnana ( Epistemology). Annals of Ayurvedic Medicine. 2021 Apr 8;3:42–7.</ref>
#Chetana K et. al. explored the role of anumana pramana in the mutra-pariksha according to [[Ayurveda]].<ref>Chethana Kumari D. S., Ajantha, & Anoma Geethani Samarawickrama. (2017). A Review on Mutra Pareeksha in Ayurveda. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences, 2(01), 139-143. Retrieved from https://jaims.in/jaims/article/view/111</ref>
#Belavadi et. al. have studied the role of anumana pramana as a tool to understand the concepts of research methodology according to [[Ayurveda]].<ref>Santosh N. Belavadi et al; Understanding Research Methodology Under Ayurvedic Parlance , Ayurpub journal, 2017;(2):10pp.370-378.</ref>
==Related Chapters==
[[Tistraishaniya adhyaya]], [[Trividharogavisheshavignyaniya adhayaya]], [[Rogabhishakjitiya Vimana Adhyaya]], [[Vedodtpatti adhyaya]].
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