Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya: Difference between revisions

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~~{{#seo:~~

~~|title=Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya~~

~~|titlemode=append~~

~~|keywords=Longevity, Ayurveda, science of life, Dravya, material, Mahabhuta, Samanya, Vishesha, Guna, Karma, Rasa, Dosha, Vata, Pitta, Kapha, Rajas, Tamas, Sattva, qualities of good and bad physicians~~

~~|description=The title of Charak Samhita’s very first chapter, Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya, literally means the chapter on longevity~~

}}

~~<big>'''Sutra Sthana Chapter 1. Fundamental principles of Longevity'''</big>~~

~~<big>'''Abstract'''</big>~~

~~<div style="text-align:justify;">~~

The title of Charak Samhita’s very first chapter, Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya, literally means the chapter on longevity. This is symbolic, because it implies that [[Ayurveda]] is not merely the science of life, but also a science of longevity. This chapter deliberates on the purpose of long life and health as the means of achieving the four primary instincts of human beings - virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation (purushartha chatushtaya) – by way of explaining some of the basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and defining its scope. The chapter introduces fundamental principles of [[Ayurveda]], including its definition, objective, concept of three bodily (sharira) doshas and their qualities, and two mental ([[manasa]]) [[dosha]] and their treatment. The [[samanya]](similarity) and [[vishesha]](dissimilarity) theory, pharmaco-therapeutic aspects, classification of drugs, list of herbs and other animal products useful in purification and pacification therapies are highlighted. Through these deliberations, this chapter essentially lays the foundation for building the body of knowledge on life sciences and healthcare that [[Charak Samhita]] is known for.

'''Keywords''': Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[Dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], [[Samanya]], [[Vishesha]], [[Guna]], [[Karma]], [[Rasa]], [[Dosha]], [[Vata]], [[Pitta]], [[Kapha]], [[Rajas]], [[Tamas]], [[Sattva]], qualities of good and bad physicians.

{{Infobox

|title = Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya

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|label5 = Other Sections

|data5 = [[Nidana Sthana]], [[Vimana Sthana]], [[Sharira Sthana]], [[Indriya Sthana]], [[Chikitsa Sthana]], [[Kalpa Sthana]], [[Siddhi Sthana]]

|header5 = Other Chapters

|label6 = ''Bheshaja Chatushka''

|data6 = [[Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya]], [[Apamarga Tanduliya Adhyaya]], [[Aragvadhiya Adhyaya]], [[Shadvirechanashatashritiya Adhyaya]]

|label7 = ''Swastha Chatushka''

|data7 = [[Matrashiteeya]], [[Tasyashiteeya]], [[Naveganadharaniya]], [[Indriyopakramaniya]]

|label8 = ''Nirdesha Chatushka''

|data8 = [[Khuddakachatushpada]], [[Mahachatushpada]], [[Tistraishaniya]], [[Vatakalakaliya]]

|label9 = ''Kalpana Chatushka''

|data9 = [[Snehadhyaya]], [[Swedadhyaya]], [[Upakalpaniya]], [[Chikitsaprabhritiya]]

|label10 = ''Roga Chatushka''

|data10 = [[Kiyanta Shiraseeya]], [[Trishothiya]], [[Ashtodariya]], [[Maharoga]]

|label11 = ''Yojana Chatushka''

|data11 = [[Ashtauninditiya]], [[Langhanabrimhaniya]], [[Santarpaniya]], [[Vidhishonitiya]]

|label12 = ''Annapana Chatushka''

|data12 = [[Yajjah Purushiya]], [[Atreyabhadrakapyiya]], [[Annapanavidhi Adhyaya]], [[Vividhashitapitiya]]

|label13 = ''Sangrahadvaya''

|data13 = [[Dashapranayataneeya]], [[Arthedashmahamooliya]]

}}

==[[Sutra Sthana]] Chapter 1, Chapter on longevity ==

===Abstract===

The title of [[Charak Samhita]]’s very first chapter, [[Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya]], literally means the chapter on longevity. This is symbolic, because it implies that Ayurveda is not merely the science of life, but also a science of longevity. This chapter deliberates on the purpose of long life and health as the means of achieving ''purushartha chatustaya'', or the four primary instincts of human beings (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) – by way of explaining some of the basic tenets of Ayurveda and defining the scope of Ayurveda. The chapter introduces fundamental principles of Ayurveda, including its definition, objective, concept of three ''sharira'' (bodily) ''doshas'' and their qualities, and two ''manasa'' (mental) ''dosha'' and their treatment. The ''samanya''(similarity) and ''vishesha''(dissimilarity) theory, pharmaco-therapeutic aspects, classification of drugs, list of herbs and other animal products useful in purification and pacification therapies are highlighted. Through these deliberations, this chapter essentially lays the foundation for building the body of knowledge on life sciences and healthcare that [[Charak Samhita]] is known for.

'''Keywords''': Longevity, Ayurveda, science of life, ''Dravya'', material, ''Mahabhuta'', ''Samanya'', ''Vishesha'', ''Guna'', ''Karma'', ''Rasa'', ''Dosha'', ''Vata'', ''Pitta'', ''Kapha'', ''Rajas'', ''Tamas'', ''Sattva'', qualities of good and bad physicians.

===Introduction===

The [[Charak Samhita]] begins with a chapter detailing the means to attaining a long, healthy and happy life, explaining certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and the consequent foundational concepts necessary to build a body of knowledge. This chapter provides a description of the origin, definition, and scope of [[Ayurveda]]. It further deliberates on the critical concepts of ''Ayu'' (life) and its qualitative dimensions, and ''arogya'' (health) as a means of achieving the four fundamental instincts (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) of life on this earth.

The [[Charak Samhita]] begins with a chapter detailing the means to attaining a long, healthy and happy life, explaining certain basic tenets of Ayurveda and the consequent foundational concepts necessary to build a body of knowledge. This chapter provides a description of the origin, definition, and scope of Ayurveda. It further deliberates on the critical concepts of ''Ayu'' (or the life-span of a human being) and its qualitative dimensions, and ''arogya'' (or health) as a means of achieving the four fundamental instincts (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) of life on this earth.

In [[Ayurveda]], the process of scientific inquiry and creation of knowledge involves the ''loka'' (the community of people or societies at large). Within the community, it is believed that scientific knowledge is created by the interchange of information between patients, practitioners and researchers through various modes of interaction ~~and observation~~. The knowledge created in this process is theorized, supported with applicable evidence and logic, and then documented systematically in the ''shastra''~~(scientific~~ scriptures). This explains the mode of ''Ayurvedic'' knowledge creation (which corresponds with the current method of scientific inquiry and knowledge creation). Once documented, the “higher levels” of scientific knowledge – or inferences - of the ''shastra'' are delivered again to the ''loka'' for public use. Thus, knowledge creation is a dynamic, iterative process involving the ''loka'' and the ''shastra''. When this dynamic interaction stops, knowledge becomes static and is dropped back in the history and the search for new alternative knowledge continues.

In Ayurveda, the process of scientific inquiry and creation of knowledge involves the ''loka'' i.e. the community of people or societies at large. Within the community, it is believed that scientific knowledge is created by the interchange of information between patients, practitioners and researchers through various modes of interaction. The knowledge created in this process is theorized, supported with applicable evidence and logic, and then documented systematically in the ''shastra'' or scriptures. This explains the mode of ''Ayurvedic'' knowledge creation (which corresponds with the current method of scientific inquiry and knowledge creation). Once documented, the “higher levels” of scientific knowledge – or inferences - of the ''shastra'' are delivered again to the ''loka'' for public use. Thus, knowledge creation is a dynamic, iterative process involving the ''loka'' and the ''shastra''. When this dynamic interaction stops, knowledge becomes static and is dropped back in the history and the search for new alternative knowledge continues.

The process of ''ayurvedavatarana'' (origin/emergence of [[Ayurveda]]) as described in this chapter should be viewed from this perspective, symbolic of this iterative process of creation of knowledge. It touches upon certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] such as the four dimensional concept of ''ayu'' or life and its qualitative categorization into ''sukhayu'' (happy life), ''duhkhayu'' (unhappy life), ''hitayu'' (positive life in harmony with self and the surroundings), and ''ahitayu''(negative life, with negative state of mind and in disharmony with the surroundings), reflecting on the individual as well as the social aspects of one’s life. The chapter also deals with the doctrine of ''samanya'' (similar) and ''vishesha'' (dissimilar), ''dravya samgraha''(knowledge of physical material) attributes of physical and mental ''~~[[dosha]]s~~'', the basic causes of ill-health, the origin of ''rasa'' (taste) and its significance, the attributes of six tastes, the nature of the material world, and the whole range of ayurvedic materia medica. Overall, as one can expect from the very first chapter of any treatise, this chapter gives guidelines about important fundamental concepts of [[Ayurveda]] that are necessary to understand the whole text.

The process of ''ayurvedavatarana'' (origin/emergence of Ayurveda) as described in this chapter should be viewed from this perspective, symbolic of this iterative process of creation of knowledge. It touches upon certain basic tenets of Ayurveda such as the four dimensional concept of ''ayu'' or life and its qualitative categorization into ''sukhayu'' (happy life), ''duhkhayu'' (unhappy life), ''hitayu'' (positive life in harmony with self and the surroundings), and ''ahitayu''(negative life, with negative state of mind and in disharmony with the surroundings), reflecting on the individual as well as the social aspects of one’s life. The chapter also deals with the doctrine of ''samanya'' (similar) and ''vishesha'' (dissimilar), ''dravya samgraha''(knowledge of physical material) attributes of physical and mental ''doshas'', the basic causes of ill-health, the origin of ''rasa'' (taste) and its significance, the attributes of six tastes, the nature of the material world, and the whole range of ayurvedic materia medica. Overall, as one can expect from the very first chapter of any treatise, this chapter gives guidelines about important fundamental concepts of Ayurveda that are necessary to understand the whole text.

It is very important for a physician to have the full knowledge of materials used in formulating ''Ayurvedic'' drugs. For this purpose, the chapter provides a detailed taxonomy of groups of medications (or recipes), including properties and actions of each ingredient within a group. To zero in from the generic to the specific, the entire “universe” of ingredients are classified into three groups: those that are useful for maintaining good health, those that are useful for treating disorders, and finally, those that are harmful to health. The first two categories, i.e., ingredients useful for health and for treating the diseases have been described by further dividing them into various ways with categorization by three general sources viz. animal-based, plant-based, and earth/mineral-based. Plant-based ingredients are further sub-classified according to their parts used viz. fruits, roots, latex and bark, with relevant examples that are further subdivided according to their applicability in therapeutics e.g. useful for ''vamana'' (therapeutic emesis), ''virechana'' (therapeutic purgation) or ''basti'' (therapeutic enema). The specific actions of the individual ingredients of such groups which may not find place in later chapters have been described herein e.g. five types of salts and eight types of urine.

The chapter suggests that [[Ayurveda]] beginners may take the help of local people or communities living in or around forests and herders in identifying herbs. ~~Quackery~~ or practitioners with little or limited knowledge of plants ~~are strongly denounced. The~~ best physician is the one who has full knowledge of ayurvedic drugs, their pharmacology, mode of administration and their use according to the condition of the patient. Exploitation of a helpless patient by a physician is considered a sin in [[Ayurveda]].

The chapter suggests that Ayurveda beginners may take the help of local people or communities living in or around forests and herders in identifying herbs. Charak denounces quackery or ayurvedic practitioners with little or limited knowledge of plants and considers that the best physician is the one who has full knowledge of ayurvedic drugs, their pharmacology, mode of administration and their use according to the condition of the patient. Exploitation of a helpless patient by a physician is considered a sin in Ayurveda.

In summary, this first chapter of [[Ayurveda]] provides, for someone aspiring to become an ''Ayurvedic'' practitioner, a foundational course that teaches not only the basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]], but also the foundational principles and practices for leading a long and healthy life.

In summary, this first chapter of Ayurveda provides, for someone aspiring to become an ''Ayurvedic'' practitioner, a foundational course that teaches not only the basic tenets of Ayurveda, but also the foundational principles and practices for leading a long and healthy life.

</div>

===Sanskrit text, transliteration and english translation===

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सूत्रस्थानम् - १. दीर्घञ्जीवितीयोऽध्यायः

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इति ह स्माह भगवानात्रेयः||२||

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Athātō dīrghañjīvitīyamadhyāyamvyākhyāsyāmaḥ||1||

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iti ha smAha bhagavAnAtreyaH||2||

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Now (I) shall expound the chapter on longevity. [1]

Thus said Lord Atreya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atreya]]. [2]

====Hierarchy of transformation of knowledge ~~of [[~~Ayurveda~~]] on earth~~====

====Hierarchy of transformation of knowledge in Ayurveda ====

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दीर्घं जीवितमन्विच्छन्भरद्वाज उपागमत्|

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इन्द्रमुग्रतपा बुद्ध्वा शरण्यममरेश्वरम्||३||

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dīrghaṁ jīvitamanvicchanbharadvāja upāgamat|

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indramugratapA buddhvA sharaNyamamareshvaram||3||

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Bharadwaja [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharadwaja]], a great ascetic, went to Indra[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indra]], the King of Gods and the saviour, in quest of longevity. [3]

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ब्रह्मणा हि यथाप्रोक्तमायुर्वेदं प्रजापतिः|

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ऋषिप्रोक्तो भरद्वाजस्तस्माच्छक्रमुपागमत्||५||

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brahmaṇā hi yathāprōktamāyurvēdaṁ prajāpatiḥ|

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r̥ṣiprōktō bharadvājastasmācchakramupāgamat||5||

brahmaNA hi ~~yathAproktam[[Ayurveda]]M~~ prajApatiH|

brahmaNA hi yathAproktamAyurvedaM prajApatiH|

jagrAha nikhilenAdAvashvinau tu punastataH||4||

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RuShiprokto bharadvAjastasmAcchakramupAgamat||5||

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At first, Prajapati [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajapati]] received [[Ayurveda]] in its entirety as recited by Brahma[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma]], from whom the Ashwins (received), and from Ashwins lord Indra received it fully. That is why Bharadwaja , as beseeched by the sages, came to Indra.[4-5]

At first, Prajapati [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajapati]] received Ayurveda in its entirety as recited by Brahma[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma]], from whom the Ashwins (received), and from Ashwins lord Indra received it fully. That is why Bharadwaja , as beseeched by the sages, came to Indra.[4-5]

====Conference on quest of longevity ====

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विघ्नभूता यदा रोगाः प्रादुर्भूताः शरीरिणाम्|

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समेताः पुण्यकर्माणः पार्श्वे हिमवतः शुभे||७||

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vighnabhūtā yadā rōgāḥ prādurbhūtāḥ śarīriṇām|

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sametAH puNyakarmANaH pArshve himavataH shubhe||7||

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When diseases started blighting life, creating impediments in penance, abstinence, study, celibacy, religious observance and life span of mankind, the holy sages, out of their compassion for creatures, assembled at an auspicious place near the Himalayas. [6-7]

====List of scholars participated in the conference ====

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अङ्गिरा जमदग्निश्च वसिष्ठः कश्यपो भृगुः|

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सुखोपविष्टास्ते तत्र पुण्यां चक्रुः कथामिमाम्|

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aṅgirā jamadagniśca vasiṣṭhaḥ kaśyapō bhr̥guḥ|

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sukhopaviShTAste tatra puNyAM cakruH kathAmimAm|15|

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Among them were Angira[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiras_(sage)], Jamadagni [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamadagni], Vashishtha [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasishtha], Kashyapa [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashyapa], Bhrigu [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhrigu], Atreya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atreya], Gautam ~~[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Maharishi~~], Samkhya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya], Pulastya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulastya], Narada [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narada], Asita [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asita], Agastya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agastya], Vamadeva [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamadeva], Markandeya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markandeya]], Ashvalayana, Parikshi, Bhikshu Atreya, ~~Bharadwaja~~[~~https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/~~Bharadwaja], Kapinjala, Vishwamitra[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvamitra]], Ashmarathya, Bhargava[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhargava]], Chyavana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chyavana]], Abhijit Gargya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gargya]], Shandilya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandilya]], Kaundinya (lya), Varkshi, Devala[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devala]], Galava, Sankrutya, Baijavapi, Kushika, Badarayana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badarayana]], Badisha, Sharaloma, Kapya, Katyayana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81ty%C4%81yana]], Kankayana, Kaikasheya, Dhaumya, Maricha, Kashyapa, Sharkaraksha, Hiranyaksha, Lokaksha, Paingi, Shaunaka[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaunaka]], Shakunteya, Maitreya, and Maimatayani, along with the sages of ''Vaikhanasa''[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaikhanasas]] and ''Valakhilya'' orders and other great sages. They all, sources of spiritual knowledge, (self control) and restraint of mind, illumined with brilliance of penance like fire, having oblations took their seats comfortably and held auspicious deliberations. [11-15]

Among them were Angira[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiras_(sage)], Jamadagni [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamadagni], Vashishtha [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasishtha], Kashyapa [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashyapa], Bhrigu [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhrigu], Atreya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atreya], [Gautam], Samkhya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya], Pulastya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulastya], Narada [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narada], Asita [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asita], Agastya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agastya], Vamadeva [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamadeva], Markandeya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markandeya]], Ashvalayana, Parikshi, Bhikshu Atreya, [Bharadwaja], Kapinjala, Vishwamitra[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvamitra]], Ashmarathya, Bhargava[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhargava]], Chyavana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chyavana]], Abhijit Gargya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gargya]], Shandilya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandilya]], Kaundinya (lya), Varkshi, Devala[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devala]], Galava, Sankrutya, Baijavapi, Kushika, Badarayana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badarayana]], Badisha, Sharaloma, Kapya, Katyayana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81ty%C4%81yana]], Kankayana, Kaikasheya, Dhaumya, Maricha, Kashyapa, Sharkaraksha, Hiranyaksha, Lokaksha, Paingi, Shaunaka[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaunaka]], Shakunteya, Maitreya, and Maimatayani, along with the sages of ''Vaikhanasa''[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaikhanasas]] and ''Valakhilya'' orders and other great sages. They all, sources of spiritual knowledge, (self control) and restraint of mind, illumined with brilliance of penance like fire, having oblations took their seats comfortably and held auspicious deliberations. [11-15]

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====Four Objectives of Life====

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धर्मार्थकाममोक्षाणामारोग्यं मूलमुत्तमम्||१५||

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स वक्ष्यति शमोपायं यथावदमरप्रभुः|

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dharmārthakāmamōkṣāṇāmārōgyaṁ mūlamuttamam||15||

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sa vakShyati shamopAyaM yathAvadamaraprabhuH|18|

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Health is the best source of virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation while diseases are destroyers of this (source), welfare and life itself. Now this (disease) has appeared as a great obstacle for human beings and what could be the means for their amelioration. Saying this they concentrated on (finding the solution). Then in that state of meditation they realised Indra as saviour. That the King of the Gods only be able to tell the correct means of amelioration (of diseases).[15-17]

</div>

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कः सहस्राक्षभवनं गच्छेत् प्रष्टुं शचीपतिम्||१८||

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पदैरल्पैर्मतिं बुद्ध्वा विपुलां परमर्षये||२३||

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kaḥ sahasrākṣabhavanaṁ gacchēt praṣṭuṁ śacīpatim||18||

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tadbrUhi me shamopAyaM yathAvadamaraprabho||22||

tasmai provAca ~~bhagavAn[[Ayurveda]]M~~ shatakratuH|

tasmai provAca bhagavAnAyurvedaM shatakratuH|

padairalpairmatiM buddhvA vipulAM paramarShaye||23||

~~</div></div>~~

Who should go to the abode of Indra to inquire about correct means of amelioration of disease? On this, volunteered Bharadwaja, “I may be deputed for this work” and so he was deputed by the sages. Having gone to Indra’s abode, he saw Indra- the slayer of ''Bala'' (a demon), sitting in the midst of the groups of godly sages and glittering like fire. He approached him with felicitating words of praises and blessings and the intelligent one submitted to him the message of the sages humbly and in the best possible way- “Diseases causing fear in all living beings have appeared so, O Lord of the Gods! Tell me the proper measure for (their) amelioration!”. Then Lord Indra, having sensed the wide intelligence of the great sage, delivered to him [[Ayurveda]] in a few words. [18-23]

Who should go to the abode of Indra to inquire about correct means of amelioration of disease? On this, volunteered Bharadwaja, “I may be deputed for this work” and so he was deputed by the sages. Having gone to Indra’s abode, he saw Indra- the slayer of ''Bala'' (a demon), sitting in the midst of the groups of godly sages and glittering like fire. He approached him with felicitating words of praises and blessings and the intelligent one submitted to him the message of the sages humbly and in the best possible way- “Diseases causing fear in all living beings have appeared so, O Lord of the Gods! Tell me the proper measure for (their) amelioration!”. Then Lord Indra, having sensed the wide intelligence of the great sage, delivered to him Ayurveda in a few words. [18-23]

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====Three principles for knowledge of Health and Disease ====

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हेतुलिङ्गौषधज्ञानं स्वस्थातुरपरायणम्|

त्रिसूत्रं शाश्वतं पुण्यं बुबुधे यं पितामहः||२४||

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hētuliṅgauṣadhajñānaṁ svasthāturaparāyaṇam|

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trisUtraM shAshvataM puNyaM bubudhe yaM pitAmahaH||24||

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[[Ayurveda]] provides the knowledge of etiology, symptomatology and therapeutics, best ways for both the healthy and the sick this tri-aphorismic, continuing for the time immemorial and virtuous knowledge which was known to Brahma first. [24]

Ayurveda provides the knowledge of etiology, symptomatology and therapeutics, best ways for both the healthy and the sick this tri-aphorismic, continuing for the time immemorial and virtuous knowledge which was known to Brahma first. [24]

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सोऽनन्तपारं त्रिस्कन्धमायुर्वेदं महामतिः|

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ऋषिभ्योऽनधिकं तच्च शशंसानवशेषयन्||२६||

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sō'nantapāraṁ triskandhamāyurvēdaṁ mahāmatiḥ|

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r̥ṣibhyō'nadhikaṁ tacca śaśaṁsānavaśēṣayan||26||

so~anantapAraM ~~triskandham[[Ayurveda]]M~~ mahAmatiH|

so~anantapAraM triskandhamAyurvedaM mahAmatiH|

yathAvadacirAt sarvaM bubudhe tanmanA muniH||25||

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RuShibhyo~anadhikaM tacca shashaMsAnavasheShayan||26||

~~</div></div>~~

He (Bharadwaja), the intelligent and focussed sage, acquired the endless and three-pronged [[Ayurveda]] properly and entirely in a short time. With this, Bharadwaja attained immeasurably blissful long-life. Thereafter, he transmitted that knowledge as it is (neither more or less) to the sages.[25-26]

He (Bharadwaja), the intelligent and focussed sage, acquired the endless and three-pronged Ayurveda properly and entirely in a short time. With this, Bharadwaja attained immeasurably blissful long-life. Thereafter, he transmitted that knowledge as it is (neither more or less) to the sages.[25-26]

</div>

====Six Basic Principles ~~for direct knowledge~~====

====Six Basic Principles of Knowledge ====

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ऋषयश्च भरद्वाजाज्जगृहुस्तं प्रजाहितम्|

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लेभिरे परमं शर्म जीवितं चाप्यनित्वरम् ||२९||

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r̥ṣayaśca bharadvājājjagr̥hustaṁ prajāhitam|

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lebhire paramaM sharma jIvitaM cApyanitvaram ||29||

~~</div></div>~~

The sages, desirous of long life, also received that benevolent ''veda'' (compendium of knowledge) of enhancing life from Bharadwaja. The great sages further grasped properly the knowledge of ''samanya'' (similarity), ''vishesha'' (dissimilarity), ''guna'' (property), ''dravya'' (substance), ''karma'' (action) and ''samvaya'' (inherence) by which they followed the tenets of the compendium and attained highest well-being and non-perishable life span. [27-29]

</div>

====Six disciples of Punarvasu Atreya====

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अथ मैत्रीपरः पुण्यमायुर्वेदं पुनर्वसुः|

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हारीतः क्षारपाणिश्च जगृहुस्तन्मुनेर्वचः||३१||

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atha maitrīparaḥ puṇyamāyurvēdaṁ punarvasuḥ|

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hārītaḥ kṣārapāṇiśca jagr̥hustanmunērvacaḥ||31|

atha maitrIparaH ~~puNyam[[Ayurveda]]M~~ punarvasuH|

atha maitrIparaH puNyamAyurvedaM punarvasuH|

shiShyebhyo dattavAn ShaDbhyaH sarvabhUtAnukampayA||30||

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hArItaH kShArapANishca jagRuhustanmunervacaH||31||

~~</div></div>~~

Now, Punarvasu (Lord Atreya), the friend of humanity, out of his benevolence, bestowed the virtuous [[Ayurveda]] upon his six disciples. (The disciples) Agnivesha, Bhela, Jatukarna, Parashara, Harita and Ksharapani received the word (of instruction) from the sage (Punarvasu). [30-31]

Now, Punarvasu (Lord Atreya), the friend of humanity, out of his benevolence, bestowed the virtuous Ayurveda upon his six disciples. (The disciples) Agnivesha, Bhela, Jatukarna, Parashara, Harita and Ksharapani received the word (of instruction) from the sage (Punarvasu). [30-31]

</div>

====Inception of Agnivesha ''Tantra''====

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बुद्धेर्विशेषस्तत्रासीन्नोपदेशान्तरं मुनेः|

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भ(भा)वाय भूतसङ्घानां प्रतिष्ठां भुवि लेभिरे||४०||

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buddhērviśēṣastatrāsīnnōpadēśāntaraṁ munēḥ|

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bha(bhA)vAya bhUtasa~gghAnAM pratiShThAM bhuvi lebhire||40||

~~</div></div>~~

It was only the extraordinary merit and not the instructions of the sage that made Agnivesha the author of the first compendium. Subsequently, Bhela etc. also authored their own compendiums and all of them, the intelligent ones, presented their work before Atreya. The sages, on hearing the composition of the various branches of [[Ayurveda]], were extremely pleased and approved it unanimously as a well-composed body of work. All praised the sages, the benefactors of all creatures, for their compassion towards fellow beings. These emphatic, wise words of the sages were heard by the deities and gods in heaven, who became extremely pleased. Their collective appreciation, in the form of a unanimous “well done!” resonated throughout the Three Worlds. Pleasant winds began to blow, there was lustre all around, and there were divine showers of ''buddhi''(Intellect), ''siddhi''(success), ''smriti'' (memory), ''medha'' (grasping power of intellect to learn sciences), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama'' (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness) on those sages (Agnivesha, etc). Thus, compendiums approved by the great sages were established on (strong) footing for the welfare of the living. [32-40]

It was only the extraordinary merit and not the instructions of the sage that made Agnivesha the author of the first compendium. Subsequently, Bhela etc. also authored their own compendiums and all of them, the intelligent ones, presented their work before Atreya. The sages, on hearing the composition of the various branches of Ayurveda, were extremely pleased and approved it unanimously as a well-composed body of work. All praised the sages, the benefactors of all creatures, for their compassion towards fellow beings. These emphatic, wise words of the sages were heard by the deities and gods in heaven, who became extremely pleased. Their collective appreciation, in the form of a unanimous “well done!” resonated throughout the Three Worlds. Pleasant winds began to blow, there was lustre all around, and there were divine showers of ''buddhi''(Intellect), ''siddhi''(success), ''smriti'' (memory), ''medha'' (grasping power of intellect to learn sciences), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama'' (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness) on those sages (Agnivesha, etc). Thus, compendiums approved by the great sages were established on (strong) footing for the welfare of the living. [32-40]

</div>

====Definition of [[Ayurveda]]====

====Definition of Ayurveda====

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हिताहितं सुखं दुःखमायुस्तस्य हिताहितम्|

मानं च तच्च यत्रोक्तमायुर्वेदः स उच्यते||४१||

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hitāhitaṁ sukhaṁ duḥkhamāyustasya hitāhitam|

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hitAhitaM sukhaM duHkhamAyustasya hitAhitam|

mAnaM ca tacca ~~yatroktam[[Ayurveda]]H~~ sa ucyate||41||

mAnaM ca tacca yatroktamAyurvedaH sa ucyate||41||

~~</div></div>~~

[[Ayurveda]] is that which deals with good, bad, blissful and sorrowful life, and with (what is) wholesome and unwholesome for it, longevity, and about what ''Ayu'' (life) is in itself. [41]

Ayurveda is that which deals with good, bad, blissful and sorrowful life, and with (what is) wholesome and unwholesome for it, longevity, and about what ''Ayu'' (life) is in itself. [41]

====Definition of ''Ayu'' (life) and its synonyms ====

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शरीरेन्द्रियसत्त्वात्मसंयोगो धारि जीवितम्|

नित्यगश्चानुबन्धश्च पर्यायैरायुरुच्यते||४२||

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śarīrēndriyasattvātmasaṁyōgō dhāri jīvitam|

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nityagashcAnubandhashca paryAyairAyurucyate||42||

~~</div></div>~~

''Ayu'' (life) implies the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul and is known by the synonym ''dhari'' (that which sustains), ''jivita'' (that which is live), ''nityaga'' (that which is in continuum), and ''anubandha'' (that which is interdependent, or a link between past life and the future life). [42]

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====Superiority of [[Ayurveda]] (over other ''Vedas'')====

====Superiority of Ayurveda (over other ''Vedas'')====

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तस्यायुषः पुण्यतमो वेदो वेदविदां मतः|

वक्ष्यते यन्मनुष्याणां लोकयोरुभयोर्हितम् ||४३||

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tasyāyuṣaḥ puṇyatamō vēdō vēdavidāṁ mataḥ|

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vakShyate yanmanuShyANAM lokayorubhayorhitam ||43||

~~</div></div>~~

''Vedic'' scholars regard [[Ayurveda]] as the most exalted of ''vedas'', and that which is said to be good for both the worlds for the human beings – the present and the after-life. [43]

''Vedic'' scholars regard Ayurveda as the most exalted of ''vedas'', and that which is said to be good for both the worlds for the human beings – the present and the after-life. [43]

==== ~~[http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/index.php?title=Samanya_Vishesha_Theory|~~ Principle of Samanya(similarity) and Vishesha(difference)~~] =~~===

====Principle of ''Samanya'' (similarity) and ''Vishesha''(difference) ====

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सर्वदा सर्वभावानां सामान्यं वृद्धिकारणम्|

ह्रासहेतुर्विशेषश्च, प्रवृत्तिरुभयस्य तु||४४||

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sarvadā sarvabhāvānāṁ sāmānyaṁ vr̥ddhikāraṇam|

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hrAsaheturvisheShashca, pravRuttirubhayasya tu||44||

~~</div></div>~~

The principle ''samanya'' causes increase and the principle ''vishesha'' causes decrease of all the existing elements at all times, both these effects are produced by their application in the body.[44]

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सामान्यमेकत्वकरं, विशेषस्तु पृथक्त्वकृत्|

तुल्यार्थता हि सामान्यं, विशेषस्तु विपर्ययः||४५||

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sāmānyamēkatvakaraṁ, viśēṣastu pr̥thaktvakr̥t|

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tulyArthatA hi sAmAnyaM, visheShastu viparyayaH||45||

~~</div></div>~~

''Samanya'' (is the principle which ) enables to understand similarity (between objects), and ''vishesha'' (is the principle which) enables to understand distinction(between objects). Again similarity proposes similar purpose (or action) while dissimilarity has opposite one.[45]

'''Contemporary view'''

It has been referred from Vaisheshika [http://https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisheshika] [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Vaiseshika_Darshana_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)] school of thought. The principle is also translated in various texts as principle of generality and specificity,sameness and antagonism, homologous and heterologous, and similar or dissimilar. The generality (i.e.sameness, homology, similarity) unifies similar substances having similar properties and action, and specificity (i.e. particularity,antagonism, heterology, dissimilarity) denotes dissimilarity of substances. The principle is applicable in every aspect of life including human biology as well as in nature. It is also important in preservation of health and treatment of diseases. The universal significance of principle of Samanya and Vishesha beyond Ayurveda is proved through three case studies viz. Case of family, Case of climate change induced biodiversity depletion and Case of poverty reduction and access to health care by Pandey DN and Pandey NP.<ref> Pandey Deep Narayan , Pandey Neha Prakash. Universal significance of the principle of Samanya and Vishesha beyond Ayurveda.Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine.2018;9(4),308-311. available online from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0975947617305727 </ref>

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====The "Tripod" of Living World and the Objective of [[Ayurveda]] ====

====The "Tripod" of Living World and the Objective of Ayurveda ====

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सत्त्वमात्मा शरीरं च त्रयमेतत्त्रिदण्डवत्|

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वेदस्यास्य, तदर्थं हि वेदोऽयं सम्प्रकाशितः||४७||

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sattvamātmā śarīraṁ ca trayamētattridaṇḍavat|

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vedasyAsya, tadarthaM hi vedo~ayaM samprakAshitaH||47||

~~</div></div>~~

Mind, soul and body- these three are like a tripod. By their conjunction, existence of the living world is sustained. It is the substratum for everything (which presently exists). This conjugation is termed as ''Purusha'' (living being) and ''Chetana'' (sentient). It is the ''adhikarana'' (subject matter) for [[Ayurveda]]. Knowledge of [[Ayurveda]] is promulgated for the sake of this (conjugation) only. [46-47]

Mind, soul and body- these three are like a tripod. By their conjunction, existence of the living world is sustained. It is the substratum for everything (which presently exists). This conjugation is termed as ''Purusha'' (living being) and ''Chetana'' (sentient). It is the ''adhikarana'' (subject matter) for Ayurveda. Knowledge of Ayurveda is promulgated for the sake of this (conjugation) only. [46-47]

</div>

====Sentient and Insentient ''Dravya'' (elements)====

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खादीन्यात्मा मनः कालो दिशश्च द्रव्यसङ्ग्रहः|

सेन्द्रियं चेतनं द्रव्यं, निरिन्द्रियमचेतनम्||४८||

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khādīnyātmā manaḥ kālō diśaśca dravyasaṅgrahaḥ|

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sendriyaM cetanaM dravyaM, nirindriyamacetanam||48||

~~</div></div>~~

''Panchamahabhuta'' (the five fundamental elements, ''akasha, vayu, tejas, ap'' and ''prithvi'', or ether, air, fire, water, and earth respectively), soul, mind, time and ''dik'' (orientation in space) are collectively called ''dravyas'' (elements). ''Dravya'', when is supplemented with sense organs, form the sentient being, while without them would be insentient. [48]

</div>

====''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''Karma'' (~~action~~)====

====''Guna'' (basic properties/ qualities) and ''Karma'' (actions)====

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सार्था गुर्वादयो बुद्धिः प्रयत्नान्ताः परादयः|

गुणाः प्रोक्ताः . प्रयत्नादि कर्म चेष्टितमुच्यते||४९||

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sārthā gurvādayō buddhiḥ prayatnāntāḥ parādayaḥ|

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guNAH proktAH prayatnAdi karma ceShTitamucyate||49||

~~</div></div>~~

Sense objects (shabda~~(sound)~~, sparsha~~(touch)~~, rupa~~(sight)~~, rasa~~(taste)~~, gandha(smell)), properties beginning with ''guru'' (twenty properties like ''guru, laghu'', etc), ''buddhi'' (intelligence) and ending with ''prayatna'' (effort), properties beginning with ''para'' are called ''gunas''. The movement initiated by ''~~prayatna~~'' ~~(effort~~) ~~(an attribute of~~ ''~~Atma~~'') is called ''karma'' (action).[49]

Sense objects (''shabda, sparsha, rupa, rasa, gandha'' (sound, touch, sight, taste and smell respectively), properties beginning with ''guru'' (twenty properties like ''guru, laghu'', etc), ''buddhi'' (intelligence) and ending with ''prayatna'' (effort),properties beginning with ''para'' are called ''gunas''. The movement initiated by (the attribute of ''Atma'') ''prayatna'' (effort) is called ''karma'' (action).[49]

</div>

====Inseparable Concomitance of Element and Properties ====

====Inseparable Concomitance of ~~dravya(elementary substance)~~ and ~~guna (properties)~~ ====

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समवायोऽपृथग्भावो भूम्यादीनां गुणैर्मतः|

स नित्यो यत्र हि द्रव्यं न तत्रानियतो गुणः||५०||

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samavāyō'pr̥thagbhāvō bhūmyādīnāṁ guṇairmataḥ|

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sa nityo yatra hi dravyaM na tatrAniyato guNaH||50||

~~</div></div>~~

''Samavaya'' (inseparable concomitance) is the inseparable relationship of ''dravya''~~(elementary substance)~~ with their ''gunas'' (properties). This is eternal because whenever a ''dravya'' exists,''~~Gunas~~'' ~~are never absent~~. [50]

''Samavaya'' (inseparable concomitance) is the inseparable relationship of ''dravya'' with their ''gunas'' (properties). This is eternal because whenever a ''dravya'' exists, it is not devoid of ''gunas''. [50]

====Definition of ''Dravya'' ~~(elementary substance)~~====

====Definition of ''Dravya'' ====

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यत्राश्रिताः कर्मगुणाः कारणं समवायि यत्|

तद्द्रव्यं

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yatrāśritāḥ karmaguṇāḥ kāraṇaṁ samavāyi yat|

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taddravyaM ...|51|

~~</div></div>~~

''Dravya'' (~~elementary substance~~) is the substratum for ''karma'' (~~action~~) and ''guna'' (properties)~~. It~~ is the ''samavayi karana'' (intrinsic or material cause of its effect). [51]

''Dravya'' (element including drugs) is the substratum for ''karma'' (actions) and ''guna'' (properties) and that which is the ''samavayi'' ''karana'' (intrinsic or material cause of its effect). [51]

====Definition of ''Guna''====

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समवायी तु निश्चेष्टः कारणं गुणः||५१||

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samavāyī tu niścēṣṭaḥ kāraṇaṁ guṇaḥ||51||

samavAyI tu nishceShTaH kAraNaM guNaH||51||

~~</div></div>~~

''Guna'' (property) is ''~~samavayi karana~~'' (~~inseparable~~ concomitance) and ~~inactive~~ cause (of effect). [51]

''Guna'' (property) is related with ''samavaya'' (inseperable concomitance to ''dravya''), is devoid of action and is (''asamavayi''), i.e., non-inherent cause of its effect). [51]

====''Karma'' (action) ====

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संयोगे च विभागे च कारणं द्रव्यमाश्रितम्|

कर्तव्यस्य क्रिया कर्म कर्म नान्यदपेक्षते||५२||

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saṁyōgē ca vibhāgē ca kāraṇaṁ dravyamāśritam|

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kartavyasya kriyA karma karma nAnyadapekShate||52||

~~</div></div>~~

The causative factor in conjunction and disjunction is located in ''dravya'' and performance of the activities to be done (as intended by the doer) is ''karma'' (action). ''Karma'' does not depend on any other factor (to produce the activities). [52]

====The Objective of this Compendium ====

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इत्युक्तं कारणं कार्यं धातुसाम्यमिहोच्यते|

धातुसाम्यक्रिया चोक्ता तन्त्रस्यास्य प्रयोजनम्||५३||

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ityuktaṁ kāraṇaṁ kāryaṁ dhātusāmyamihōcyatē|

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dhAtusAmyakriyA coktA tantrasyAsya prayojanam||53||

~~</div></div>~~

Thus has been described the cause. Now the effect ''dhatusamya'' is discussed here because the objective of this compendium is achievement of ''dhatusamya'' (equilibrium of sustaining and nourishing factors i.e. body constituents). [53]

====Three Types of Causes of Diseases ====

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कालबुद्धीन्द्रियार्थानां योगो मिथ्या न चाति च|

द्वयाश्रयाणां व्याधीनां त्रिविधो हेतुसङ्ग्रहः||५४||

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kālabuddhīndriyārthānāṁ yōgō mithyā na cāti ca|

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dvayAshrayANAM vyAdhInAM trividho hetusa~ggrahaH||54||

~~</div></div>~~

Erroneous use, avoidance and excessive use of time factor, intellect and sense objects is the threefold cause of both psychic and somatic disorders. [54]

====Two Sites of Pleasure and Disease ====

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शरीरं सत्त्वसञ्ज्ञं च व्याधीनामाश्रयो मतः|

तथा सुखानां, योगस्तु सुखानां कारणं समः||५५||

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śarīraṁ sattvasañjñaṁ ca vyādhīnāmāśrayō mataḥ|

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tathA sukhAnAM, yogastu sukhAnAM kAraNaM samaH||55||

~~</div></div>~~

Both body and mind are the locations of disorders as well as pleasures. The balanced use (of the factors mentioned in previous verse) is the cause of pleasures. [55]

====The Soul ====

====The Nature of Soul ====

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निर्विकारः परस्त्वात्मा सत्त्वभूतगुणेन्द्रियैः|

चैतन्ये कारणं नित्यो द्रष्टा पश्यति हि क्रियाः||५६||

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nirvikāraḥ parastvātmā sattvabhūtaguṇēndriyaiḥ|

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caitanye kAraNaM nityo draShTA pashyati hi kriyAH||56||

~~</div></div>~~

The soul is unchangeable and superior to ~~all. It~~ is the cause of consciousness when in conjunction with mind, properties, ''bhutas''~~(fundamental elements)~~ and sense organs~~.It~~ is eternal and the seer who witnesses all actions. [56]

The soul is unchangeable and ''para'' (superior to anything), is the cause of consciousness when in conjunction with mind, properties of ''bhutas'' and sense organs, is eternal and is the seer who witnesses all actions. [56]

====Three [[Sharira~~]] [[~~Dosha]] and two [[Manas~~]] [[~~Dosha]] ====

====Three ''Sharira Dosha'' and two ''Manas Dosha'' ====

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वायुः पित्तं कफश्चोक्तः शारीरो दोषसङ्ग्रहः|

मानसः पुनरुद्दिष्टो रजश्च तम एव च||५७||

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vāyuḥ pittaṁ kaphaścōktaḥ śārīrō dōṣasaṅgrahaḥ|

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mAnasaH punaruddiShTo rajashca tama eva ca||57||

~~</div></div>~~

[[Vayu]], [[pitta]] and [[kapha]] are described as bodily ~~[[dosha]]; [[~~rajas]] and [[tamas]] are mentioned as the mental ones. [57]

''Vayu, pitta'' and ''kapha'' are described as bodily ''doshas'', ''rajas'' and ''tamas'' are mentioned as the mental ones. [57]

====~~=Management~~ of ~~[[dosha]] ==~~===

====Treatment of these ''doshas'' ====

~~<div class~~=~~"mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

प्रशाम्यत्यौषधैः पूर्वो दैवयुक्तिव्यपाश्रयैः|

मानसो ज्ञानविज्ञानधैर्यस्मृतिसमाधिभिः||५८||

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praśāmyatyauṣadhaiḥ pūrvō daivayuktivyapāśrayaiḥ|

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mAnaso j~jAnavij~jAnadhairyasmRutisamAdhibhiH||58||

~~</div></div>~~

The former ones ([[sharira~~]] [[~~dosha]]) are pacified by remedial measures of divine~~([[daiva-vyapashraya]])~~ and rational qualities~~[[Talk:Apamarga Tanduliya Adhyaya#'''Yukti Pramana and Yuktivyapashraya Chikitsa(Rational therapeutics)'''|(yuktivyapashraya)]]~~ while the latter ones ([[manas~~]] [[~~dosha]]) can be treated with ~~[[jnana]](spiritual knowledge)~~ and ~~[[vijnana]](scientific~~ knowledge), ~~[[dhairya]](~~temperance), ~~[[smruti(~~memory~~)]]~~ and ~~samadhi(~~concentration). [58]

The former ones (''sharira dosha'') are pacified by remedial measures of divine and rational qualities while the latter ones (''manas dosha'') can be treated with general and specific knowledge, temperance, memory and concentration. [58]

=====Properties ~~and pacification~~ of ~~[[dosha]]==~~===

====Properties of ''doshas''====

~~<div class~~=~~"mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

रूक्षः शीतो लघुः सूक्ष्मश्चलोऽथ विशदः खरः|

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श्लेष्मणः प्रशमं यान्ति विपरीतगुणैर्गुणाः||६१||

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rūkṣaḥ śītō laghuḥ sūkṣmaścalō'tha viśadaḥ kharaḥ|

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shleShmaNaH prashamaM yAnti viparItaguNairguNAH||61||

~~</div></div>~~

''Vayu'' is dry, cold, light, subtle, mobile, non-slimy and rough in its characteristics and can be pacified by drugs that have opposite properties (i.e., creamy or oily, heavy and thick in their property). ''Pitta'' is mildly unctuous, hot, sharp, viscous, sour, mobile and pungent, and can readily be pacified by drugs and food articles having opposite properties. ''Kapha'' is heavy and dense, cold, soft, unctuous, sweet, immobile and slimy, and can be subsided by drugs and food articles possessing opposite properties. [59-61]

</div>

~~==== General principles of management of disorders and prognosis ====~~

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

विपरीतगुणैर्देशमात्राकालोपपादितैः|

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भूयश्चातो यथाद्रव्यं गुणकर्माणि वक्ष्यते||६३||

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viparītaguṇairdēśamātrākālōpapāditaiḥ|

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bhUyashcAto yathAdravyaM guNakarmANi vakShyate||63||

~~</div></div>~~

Curable disorders can be treated using drugs having opposite properties and administered with due consideration to place or location, dosage and time. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised (in [[Ayurveda]]).

Curable disorders can be treated using drugs having opposite properties and administered with due consideration to place or location, dosage and time. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised (in Ayurveda).

Now described, in detail, are the properties and actions of drugs [62-63]

</div>

====''Rasa'' (taste sensations) ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

रसनार्थो रसस्तस्य द्रव्यमापः क्षितिस्तथा|

निर्वृत्तौ च विशेषे च प्रत्ययाः खादयस्त्रयः||६४||

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rasanārthō rasastasya dravyamāpaḥ kṣitistathā|

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nirvRuttau ca visheShe ca pratyayAH khAdayastrayaH||64||

~~</div></div>~~

''Rasa'' is the object of ''rasana'' (gustatory sense organ). Its material substances are ''apa'' and ''prithvi''. In manifestation and differentiation of ''rasa'', the other three ''akasha'' etc. (''akasha, vayu'' and ''tejas'') are causative factors. [64]

~~===== Group of six ''rasa''(taste sensations) =====~~

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

स्वादुरम्लोऽथ लवणः कटुकस्तिक्त एव च|

कषायश्चेति षट्कोऽयं रसानां सङ्ग्रहः स्मृतः||६५||

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svāduramlō'tha lavaṇaḥ kaṭukastikta ēva ca|

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kaShAyashceti ShaTko~ayaM rasAnAM sa~ggrahaH smRutaH||65||

~~</div></div>~~

Sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent – this is the group of six ''rasa'' (tastes). [65]

~~===== Effect of ''rasa'' on state of ''dosha'' =====~~

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

स्वाद्वम्ललवणा वायुं, कषायस्वादुतिक्तकाः|

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कटुतिक्तकषायाश्च कोपयन्ति समीरणम् ||१||)

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svādvamlalavaṇā vāyuṁ, kaṣāyasvādutiktakāḥ|

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kaTutiktakaShAyAshca kopayanti samIraNam ||1||)

~~</div></div>~~

(Among these tastes) sweet, sour and salty overcome ''vayu'', astringent, sweet and bitter subdue ''pitta'' and astringent, pungent and bitter win over ''kapha''. [66]

==== Classification of ''dravya'' based on ~~action~~ ====

====Classification of ''dravya'' based on ''prabhava'' ====

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किञ्चिद्दोषप्रशमनं किञ्चिद्धातुप्रदूषणम्|

स्वस्थवृत्तौ मतं किञ्चित्त्रिविधं द्रव्यमुच्यते||६७||

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kiñciddōṣapraśamanaṁ kiñciddhātupradūṣaṇam|

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svasthavRuttau mataM ki~jcittrividhaM dravyamucyate||67||

~~</div></div>~~

~~Elementary substances are~~ of three types (based on ~~action~~)- (1) some pacifiers of ''doshas'', (2) some vitiate ''dhatus'' and (3) some are taken as (responsible for) maintaining normal health. [67]

Drug is of three types- (based on ''prabhava'') (1) some (drugs) are pacifiers of ''doshas'', (2) some vitiate ''dhatus'' and (3) some are taken as (responsible for) maintaining normal health. [67]

==== Classification of ~~dravya (elementary substance)~~ according to Source ====

====Classification of Matters according to Source ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

तत् पुनस्त्रिविधं प्रोक्तं जङ्गमौद्भिदपार्थिवम् |

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~~tat punastrividhaṁ prōktaṁ jaṅgamaudbhidapārthivam |~~

~~tat punastrividhaM proktaM ja~ggamaudbhidapArthivam |~~

~~</div></div>~~

~~According to the source of origin, the drugs are of three types viz. animal origin, plant origin and earth origin.(68)~~

~~===== Animal origin substances =====~~

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

मधूनि गोरसाः पित्तं वसा मज्जाऽसृगामिषम्||६८||

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जङ्गमेभ्यः प्रयुज्यन्ते केशा लोमानि रोचनाः||६९||

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tat punastrividhaṁ prōktaṁ jaṅgamaudbhidapārthivam |

madhūni gōrasāḥ pittaṁ vasā majjā'sr̥gāmiṣam||68||

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jaṅgamēbhyaḥ prayujyantē kēśā lōmāni rōcanāḥ||69||

tat punastrividhaM proktaM ja~ggamaudbhidapArthivam |

madhUni gorasAH pittaM vasA majjA~asRugAmiSham||68||

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ja~ggamebhyaH prayujyante keshA lomAni rocanAH||69||

~~</div></div>~~

According to the source of origin, the drugs are of three types viz. animal origin, plant origin and earth origin.

Honey, milk, bile, animal-fat, bone-marrow, blood, flesh, ~~excreta~~, urine, skin, semen, bone, ligaments, horns, nails, hoof, hair, down (fine soft dense hair) and inspissated bile - are substances obtained from animals [68-69].

Animal origin drugs - Honey, milk, bile, animal-fat, bone-marrow, blood, flesh, excrements, urine, skin, semen, bone, ligaments, horns, nails, hoof, hair, down (fine soft dense hair) and inspissated bile - are substances obtained from animals [68-69].

</div>

====Earth origin drugs ====

===== Earth origin ~~substances ==~~===

~~<div class~~=~~"mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

सुवर्णं समलाः पञ्च लोहाः ससिकताः सुधा|

मनःशिलाले मणयो लवणं गैरिकाञ्जने||७०||

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भौममौषधमुद्दिष्टमौद्भिदं तु चतुर्विधम्|

वनस्पतिस्तथा वीरुद्वानस्पत्यस्तथौषधिः||७१||

suvarṇaṁ samalāḥ pañca lōhāḥ sasikatāḥ sudhā|

manaḥśilālē maṇayō lavaṇaṁ gairikāñjanē||70||

bhaumamauṣadhamuddiṣṭamaudbhidaṁ tu caturvidham|

vanaspatistathā vīrudvānaspatyastathauṣadhiḥ||71||

suvarNaM samalAH pa~jca lohAH sasikatAH sudhA|

manaHshilAle maNayo lavaNaM gairikA~jjane||70||

~~</div></div>~~

Substances obtained from earth are gold, five metals (silver, copper, tin, lead and iron) along with their byproducts such as ''shilajatu'' (bitumen), sand, lime, red and yellow arsenic (''manahshila'' and ''hartala''), gems, salt, red ochre and antimony.[70

~~===== Plant origin substances =====~~

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

~~भौममौषधमुद्दिष्टमौद्भिदं तु चतुर्विधम्|~~

~~वनस्पतिस्तथा वीरुद्वानस्पत्यस्तथौषधिः||७१||~~

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~~bhaumamauṣadhamuddiṣṭamaudbhidaṁ tu caturvidham|~~

~~vanaspatistathā vīrudvānaspatyastathauṣadhiḥ||71||~~

bhaumamauShadhamuddiShTamaudbhidaM tu caturvidham|

vanaspatistathA vIrudvAnaspatyastathauShadhiH||71||

~~</div></div>~~

Drugs obtained from earth are gold, five metals (silver, copper, tin, lead and iron) along with their byproducts such as ''shilajatu'' (bitumen), sand, lime, red and yellow arsenic (''manahshila'' and ''hartala''), gems, salt, red ochre and antimony.

Plant origin drugs: Plant origin drugs are of four types viz. direct fruiters, creepers, flower based fruiters and herbs [71].

Plant origin drugs: Plant origin drugs are of four types viz. direct fruiters, creepers, flower based fruiters and herbs [70-71].

</div>

~~====== Four types of substances from plant origin ======~~

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

फलैर्वनस्पतिः पुष्पैर्वानस्पत्यः फलैरपि|

ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ताः प्रतानैर्वीरुधः स्मृताः||७२||

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phalairvanaspatiḥ puṣpairvānaspatyaḥ phalairapi|

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oShadhyaH phalapAkAntAH pratAnairvIrudhaH smRutAH||72||

~~</div></div>~~

The plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as ''vanaspati'' (Gymno-spermia). The plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as ''vanaspatya'' (angio-spermia). The plants which die out after flowering are known as ''aushadha'' (annuals). The plants which creep or twine are known as ''virudha'' (creepers) [72]

</div>

====Plant’s parts used as drugs ====

===== Plant’s parts used as drugs =====

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मूलत्वक्सारनिर्यासनाल(ड)स्वरसपल्लवाः|

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पत्राणि शुङ्गाः कन्दाश्च प्ररोहाश्चौद्भिदो गणः|७४|

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mūlatvaksāraniryāsanāla(ḍa)svarasapallavāḥ|

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patrANi shu~ggAH kandAshca prarohAshcaudbhido gaNaH|74|

~~</div></div>~~

The roots bark, pith, exudation, stalk, juice, sprouts, alkalis, latex, fruits, flowers, ash, oil, thorns, leaves, buds, bulbs and off-shoots of the plants are used as drugs [73-73.5]

==== ~~Groups~~ of ~~substances for medicinal use~~ ====

====Miscellaneous classifications of the drugs ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

मूलिन्यः षोडशैकोना फलिन्यो विंशतिः स्मृताः||७४||

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य एतान् वेत्ति संयोक्तुं विकारेषु स वेदवित्||७६||

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mūlinyaḥ ṣōḍaśaikōnā phalinyō viṁśatiḥ smr̥tāḥ||74||

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ya etAn vetti saMyoktuM vikAreShu sa vedavit||76||

~~</div></div>~~

Per the school of Punarvasu (Lord Atreya), roots of 16 plants and fruits of 19 plants are used as drugs. Similarly, principal unctuous (''mahasneha'') substances are of four types and main salts are of five types. Urine and milk for medicinal purposes are obtained from 8 different animals and six plants are used for purification (''shodhana''). The physician who knows how to use all these materials for curing the disease is the expert physician [74-76].

</div>

=====Sixteen roots used for ''shodhana'' (purification) =====

====Sixteen roots used for ''shodhana'' (purification):====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

हस्तिदन्ती हैमवती श्यामा त्रिवृदधोगुडा|

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इत्युक्ता नामकर्मभ्यां मूलिन्यः...|८०|

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hastidantī haimavatī śyāmā trivr̥dadhōguḍā|

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ityuktA nAmakarmabhyAM mUlinyaH...|80|

~~</div></div>~~

The roots of 16 plants whose roots are used for shodhana are ''Hastidanti, Haimavati, Shyama, Trivrit, Adhoguda, Saptala, Shvetanama, Pratyakshreni, Gavakshi, Jyotishmati, Bimbi, Shanapushpi, Vishanika, Ajagandha, Dravanti'' and ''Kshirini''.

Out of these ''Shankhapushpi, Bimbi and Haimavati'' are used for ''vamana'' (emesis therapy). ''Shveta'' and ''Jyotishmati'' are used for ''nasya karma'' (errhine). The remaining 11 drugs are used for ''virechana karma'' (purgation therapy) [77-80].

</div>

===== Fruits used for ''shodhana'' (purification therapy) =====

====Fruits used for ''shodhana'' (purification therapy) ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

...फलिनीः शृणु||८०||

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नामकर्मभिरुक्तानि फलान्येकोनविंशतिः|८६|

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...phalinīḥ śr̥ṇu||80||

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nAmakarmabhiruktAni phalAnyekonaviMshatiH|86|

~~</div></div>~~

Fruits of the following 19 plants are used as drugs- ''Shankhini, Vidanga, Trapusha, Madanaphala, Dhamargava, Ikshvaku, Jimutam, Kritavedhana'', two types of ''Klitakam'' occurring in marshy and dry land (''anupam, sthalaja''), ''Prakirya, Udakirya, Pratyakpushpa, Abhaya, Antahkotarapushpi, Hastiparni, Sharada, Kampillaka, Aragvadhaphala'' and ''Kutaja''.

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''Pratyakpushpa'' is used for ''nasya karma''. The remaining 10 drugs are useful for ''virechana karma''. Thus the names and main actions of 19 fruiters have been described [81-85.5].

</div>

=====Four major unctuous substances=====

====Four major unctuous substances====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

सर्पिस्तैलं वसा मज्जा स्नेहो दिष्टश्चतुर्विधः ||८६||

पानाभ्यञ्जनबस्त्यर्थं नस्यार्थं चैव योगतः|

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sarpistailaṁ vasā majjā snēhō diṣṭaścaturvidhaḥ ||86||

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pAnAbhya~jjanabastyarthaM nasyArthaM caiva yogataH|

~~</div></div>~~

Ghee, oil, animal-fat and bone-marrow are the four major unctuous substances. These are used after preparing with other drugs for potion, inunction, medicated enema and errhine (''nasya'') therapy [86].

======General actions of unctuous substances ======

====General actions of unctuous substances ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

स्नेहना जीवना वर्ण्या बलोपचयवर्धनाः||८७||

स्नेहा ह्येते च विहिता वातपित्तकफापहाः|८८|

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snēhanā jīvanā varṇyā balōpacayavardhanāḥ||87||

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snehA hyete ca vihitA vAtapittakaphApahAH|88|

~~</div></div>~~

The unctuous substances produce oiliness, vitality, complexion, strength and growth in the body and provide relief in ''vata'', ''pitta'' and ''kapha'' [87-87.5]

=====Five salts =====

====Five salts ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

सौवर्चलं सैन्धवं च विडमौद्भिदमेव च||८८||

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स्निग्धान्युष्णानि तीक्ष्णानि दीपनीयतमानि च||८९||

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sauvarcalaṁ saindhavaṁ ca viḍamaudbhidamēva ca||88||

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snigdhAnyuShNAni tIkShNAni dIpanIyatamAni ca||89||

~~</div></div>~~

Five principal salts are black/sochal salt (''sauvarchala''), rock salt (''saindhava''), ammonium chloride (''vid''), earth/efflorescence salt (''audbhid'') and sea salt (''samudra''). They are unctuous, hot, sharp/acute and foremost in digestive-stimulants [88-89].

======Utility of salts ======

====Utility of salts ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

आलेपनार्थे युज्यन्ते स्नेहस्वेदविधौ तथा|

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उक्तानि लवणा(नि)...|९२|

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ālēpanārthē yujyantē snēhasvēdavidhau tathā|

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uktAni lavaNA(ni)...|92|

~~</div></div>~~

Salts are used for external applications (''alepa''), oleation, sudation, in emesis and purgation preparations, in evacuation and unctuous types of enemata preparations, inunction and errhine therapy; in surgical operations, suppository, collyrium, friction massage and as a food. It is indicated in indigestion, constipation, disorders of ''vata'', ''gulma'', colic and abdominal diseases. Thus, salts have been described [90-91.5]

</div>

=====Eight important ~~origins~~ of urine =====

====Eight important varieties of urine ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

... न्यू(ऊ)र्ध्वं मूत्राण्यष्टौ निबोध मे||९२||

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हस्तिमूत्रमथोष्ट्रस्य हयस्य च खरस्य च|

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... nyū(ū)rdhvaṁ mūtrāṇyaṣṭau nibōdha mē||92||

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hastimUtramathoShTrasya hayasya ca kharasya ca|

~~</div></div>~~

Eight principal urines described by the Atreya School for medicinal use are urine of ewe, she-goat, cow, she-buffalo, elephant, she-camel, mare and she-donkey [92-93]

====== General properties and external uses of urine ======

====General properties and external uses of urine ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

उष्णं तीक्ष्णमथोऽरूक्षं कटुकं लवणान्वितम्||९४||

मूत्रमुत्सादने युक्तं युक्तमालेपनेषु च|

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

uṣṇaṁ tīkṣṇamathō'rūkṣaṁ kaṭukaṁ lavaṇānvitam||94||

Line 1,576:

Line 1,430:

mUtramutsAdane yuktaM yuktamAlepaneShu ca|

~~</div></div>~~

Generally, urines have hot, acute and non-dry actions, are pungent and salty in taste and are used for frictional massage and external applications (''alepa'') [94].

====== Internal uses of urine ======

====Internal uses of urine ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

युक्तमास्थापने मूत्रं युक्तं चापि विरेचने||९५||

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Line 1,442:

तद्युक्तमुपनाहेषु परिषेके तथैव च|

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

yuktamāsthāpanē mūtraṁ yuktaṁ cāpi virēcanē||95||

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Line 1,458:

tadyuktamupanAheShu pariSheke tathaiva ca|

~~</div></div>~~

Urines are also used in the preparations of evacuator enema, purgatives, poultice (''upanaha'') and affusion (''parisheka'') as well as in antidote (''agada'') preparations. It is indicated in afflictions such as retention of feces, urine and flatulence (''anaha''), generalized enlargement of abdomen (''udara roga''), ''gulma'', piles, dermatosis (''kushtha'') and leukoderma [95-96.5]

</div>

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

दीपनीयं विषघ्नं च क्रिमिघ्नं चोपदिश्यते||९७||

पाण्डुरोगोपसृष्टानामुत्तमं शर्म चोच्यते|

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

dīpanīyaṁ viṣaghnaṁ ca krimighnaṁ cōpadiśyatē||97||

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Line 1,472:

pANDurogopasRuShTAnAmuttamaM sharma cocyate|

~~</div></div>~~

Urines have been prescribed as digestive stimulants, antidotes to poison and as vermicides. They are excellent for the treatment of persons suffering from ''pandu'' (anemia) [97.5]

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

श्लेष्माणं शमयेत् पीतं मारुतं चानुलोमयेत्||९८||

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सामान्येन मयोक्तस्तु पृथक्त्वेन प्रवक्ष्यते||९९||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

ślēṣmāṇaṁ śamayēt pītaṁ mārutaṁ cānulōmayēt||98||

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Line 1,492:

sAmAnyena mayoktastu pRuthaktvena pravakShyate||99||

~~</div></div>~~

Oral intake of urine pacifies ''kapha'', regulates peristaltic movement of ''vata'' and evacuates morbid ''pitta'' through lower channels. General properties and actions of urine thus have been described. Now they will be described individually [98-99]

</div>

====== Properties of urine of ewe and goat ======

====Properties of urine of ewe and goat ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

अविमूत्रं सतिक्तं स्यात् स्निग्धं पित्ताविरोधि च|

आजं कषायमधुरं पथ्यं दोषान्निहन्ति च||१००||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

avimūtraṁ satiktaṁ syāt snigdhaṁ pittāvirōdhi ca|

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Line 1,508:

AjaM kaShAyamadhuraM pathyaM doShAnnihanti ca||100||

~~</div></div>~~

The urine of ewe is slightly bitter, unctuous and not antagonistic to ''pitta''. The urine of she-goat is astringent, sweet and wholesome and dispels the morbid ''dosha'' [100]

======Properties of cow’s urine ======

====Properties of cow’s urine ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

गव्यं समधुरं किञ्चिद्दोषघ्नं क्रिमिकुष्ठनुत्|

कण्डूं च शमयेत् पीतं सम्यग्दोषोदरे हितम्||१०१||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

gavyaṁ samadhuraṁ kiñciddōṣaghnaṁ krimikuṣṭhanut|

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Line 1,524:

kaNDUM ca shamayet pItaM samyagdoShodare hitam||101||

~~</div></div>~~

The urine of cow is slightly sweet, alleviates discordance of dosha and cures worms and chronic dermatoses (''kushtha'') and relieves pruritis. Its proper intake cures disorders of abdomen [101]

======Properties of urine of buffalo and elephant ======

====Properties of urine of buffalo and elephant ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

अर्शःशोफोदरघ्नं तु सक्षारं माहिषं सरम्|

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Line 1,534:

प्रशस्तं बद्धविण्मूत्रविषश्लेष्मामयार्शसाम्|

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

arśaḥśōphōdaraghnaṁ tu sakṣāraṁ māhiṣaṁ saram|

Line 1,711:

Line 1,546:

prashastaM baddhaviNmUtraviShashleShmAmayArshasAm|

~~</div></div>~~

The urine of buffalo provides relief in piles, edema and disorders leading to general enlargement of abdomen (''udara roga''). The urine of she-elephant is salty and provides relief in worms and dermatoses (''kushtha''). It is also useful in the treatment of retention of feces and urine, poisoning, ''kapha'' disorders and piles [102.5]

</div>

======Properties of urine of she-camel ======

====Properties of urine of she-camel ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

सतिक्तं श्वासकासघ्नमर्शोघ्नं चौष्ट्रमुच्यते||१०३||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

satiktaṁ śvāsakāsaghnamarśōghnaṁ cauṣṭramucyatē||103||

satiktaM shvAsakAsaghnamarshoghnaM cauShTramucyate||103||

~~</div></div>~~

The urine of she-camel is slightly bitter and provides relief in breathlessness, cough and piles [103].

====== Properties of urine of mare and she-donkey ======

====Properties of urine of mare and she-donkey ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

वाजिनां तिक्तकटुकं कुष्ठव्रणविषापहम्|

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Line 1,566:

इतीहोक्तानि मूत्राणि यथासामर्थ्ययोगतः|१०५|

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

vājināṁ tiktakaṭukaṁ kuṣṭhavraṇaviṣāpaham|

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Line 1,578:

itIhoktAni mUtrANi yathAsAmarthyayogataH|105|

~~</div></div>~~

Urine of mare is bitter and pungent in taste and provides relief in dermatoses (''kushtha''), wounds and poisoning.

Line 1,755:

Line 1,583:

Thus described were the medicinal properties and action of eight types of urine. [104].

</div>

====Eight important varieties of milk ====

=====Eight important ~~origins~~ of milk =====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

अतः क्षीराणि वक्ष्यन्ते कर्म चैषां गुणाश्च ये||१०५||

Line 1,764:

Line 1,590:

उष्ट्रीणामथ नागीनां वडवायाः स्त्रियास्तथा||१०६||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

ataḥ kṣīrāṇi vakṣyantē karma caiṣāṁ guṇāśca yē||105||

Line 1,777:

Line 1,602:

uShTrINAmatha nAgInAM vaDavAyAH striyAstathA||106||

~~</div></div>~~

Henceforth properties and actions of (eight types) milk are being described.

The milks of sheep, goat, cow, buffalo, camel, elephant, mare and woman are used for medicinal purposes. [105-106]

====== General properties and actions of milk ======

====General properties and actions of milk====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

प्रायशो मधुरं स्निग्धं शीतं स्तन्यं पयो मतम्|

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Line 1,620:

तृष्णाघ्नं दीपनीयं च श्रेष्ठं क्षीणक्षतेषु च||१०९||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

prāyaśō madhuraṁ snigdhaṁ śītaṁ stanyaṁ payō matam|

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Line 1,644:

tRuShNAghnaM dIpanIyaM ca shreShThaM kShINakShateShu ca||109||

~~</div></div>~~

Generally, milk is sweet, unctuous, cooling, galactagogue, pleasing, aphrodisiac, brain tonic (''medhya'', which increases intelligence), strengthening, exhilarating, vitalizing, refreshing; curative to dyspnea, cough, bleeding, synthesizer in injuries/fracture; wholesome to all living creatures, pacifies and evacuates the ''dosha'', quenches the thirst, stimulates the digestion and very useful in emaciation due to lung ulcer [107-109].

</div>

====General indications of milk ====

====== General indications of milk ======

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

पाण्डुरोगेऽम्लपित्ते च शोषे गुल्मे तथोदरे|

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Line 1,656:

पुरीषे ग्रथिते पथ्यं वातपित्तविकारिणाम्||१११||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

pāṇḍurōgē'mlapittē ca śōṣē gulmē tathōdarē|

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Line 1,672:

purIShe grathite pathyaM vAtapittavikAriNAm||111||

~~</div></div>~~

Milk is indicated in ''pandu''(anemia), ''amlapitta'' (acid dyspepsia), consumption, ''gulma'' and ''udara roga'' (generalized enlargement of abdomen), diarrhea, fever, burning sensation, particularly in edema, vaginal and seminal disorders, oliguria and hard stools. It is wholesome to disorders of ''vata'' and ''pitta'' [110-111].

</div>

====Pharmaceutical uses of milk ====

====== Pharmaceutical uses of milk ======

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

नस्यालेपावगाहेषु वमनास्थापनेषु च|

विरेचने स्नेहने च पयः सर्वत्र युज्यते||११२||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

nasyālēpāvagāhēṣu vamanāsthāpanēṣu ca|

Line 1,874:

Line 1,688:

virecane snehane ca payaH sarvatra yujyate||112||

~~</div></div>~~

Milk is used in many types of preparation including for nasal medication, external applications, tub baths, emesis, enema, purgation and unctuous therapies [112]

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

यथाक्रमं क्षीरगुणानेकैकस्य पृथक् पृथक्|

अन्नपानादिकेऽध्याये भूयो वक्ष्याम्यशेषतः||११३||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

yathākramaṁ kṣīraguṇānēkaikasya pr̥thak pr̥thak|

Line 1,891:

Line 1,702:

annapAnAdike~adhyAye bhUyo vakShyAmyasheShataH||113||

~~</div></div>~~

Further exhaustive description of uses and action of the individual milk will be explained in due order in the chapter entitled [[Annapanavidhi Adhyaya]] [113].

===== Plants with latex =====

====Plants with latex ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

अथापरे त्रयो वृक्षाः पृथग्ये फलमूलिभिः|

Line 1,905:

Line 1,714:

क्षीरमर्कस्य विज्ञेयं वमने सविरेचने||११५||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

athāparē trayō vr̥kṣāḥ pr̥thagyē phalamūlibhiḥ|

Line 1,922:

Line 1,730:

kShIramarkasya vij~jeyaM vamane savirecane||115||

~~</div></div>~~

Now other than fruiters and rooter, three plants whose latex is used will be described. These three plants are ''Snuhi'', ''Arka'' and ''Ashmantaka''.

''Ashmantaka'' is used for therapeutic emesis ; latex of ''Snuhi'' is used for purgation and latex of ''Arka'' is used both for emesis and purgation therapies. [114-115]

''Ashmantaka'' is used for therapeutic emesis ; latex of ''Snuhi'' is used for purgation and latex of ''Arka'' is used both for emesis and purgation therapies [114-115]

===== Three bark-plants used as drug ~~and their therapeutic uses~~ =====

====Three bark-plants used as drug ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

इमांस्त्रीनपरान् वृक्षानाहुर्येषां हितास्त्वचः|

पूतीकः कृष्णगन्धा च तिल्वकश्च तथा तरुः||११६||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

imāṁstrīnaparān vr̥kṣānāhuryēṣāṁ hitāstvacaḥ|

Line 1,942:

Line 1,747:

pUtIkaH kRuShNagandhA ca tilvakashca tathA taruH||116||

~~</div></div>~~

There are three more trees whose bark is used as drug.

These are ''Putika'', ''Krishnagandha'' and ''Tilvaka''. [116]

These are ''Putika'', ''Krishnagandha'' and ''Tilvaka'' [116]

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

विरेचने प्रयोक्तव्यः पूतीकस्तिल्वकस्तथा|

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Line 1,758:

षड्वृक्षाञ्छोधनानेतानपि विद्याद्विचक्षणः||११८||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

virēcanē prayōktavyaḥ pūtīkastilvakastathā|

Line 1,972:

Line 1,774:

ShaDvRukShA~jchodhanAnetAnapi vidyAdvicakShaNaH||118||

~~</div></div>~~

The barks of ''Putika'' and ''Tilvaka'' are used for purgation therapy. Indications of bark of ''Krishnagandha'' are erysipelas, inflammation, piles, ringworm, abscess, nodules, dermatosis and gangrene (''alaji''). The wise physician should also acquire the knowledge of the above mentioned six plants (three with latex and three with bark) of their pacification actions [117-118].

</div>

====Conclusion of descriptions of the plants ====

====~~= Summary~~ of descriptions of the plants =====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

इत्युक्ताः फलमूलिन्यः स्नेहाश्च लवणानि च|

मूत्रं क्षीराणि वृक्षाश्च षड् ये दिष्टपयस्त्वचः||११९||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

ityuktāḥ phalamūlinyaḥ snēhāśca lavaṇāni ca|

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Line 1,790:

mUtraM kShIrANi vRukShAshca ShaD ye diShTapayastvacaH||119||

~~</div></div>~~

Thus have been described the fruiters, rooters, unctuous substances, salts, urines, milks and the six plants whose latex and barks are used. [119]

Thus have been described the fruiters, rooters, unctuous substances, salts, urines, milks and the six plants whose latex and barks are used [119]

==== ~~Importance and methods of~~ identification of plants ====

====Help for identification of plants ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

ओषधीर्नामरूपाभ्यां जानते ह्यजपा वने|

अविपाश्चैव गोपाश्च ये चान्ये वनवासिनः||१२०||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

ōṣadhīrnāmarūpābhyāṁ jānatē hyajapā vanē|

Line 2,011:

Line 1,806:

avipAshcaiva gopAshca ye cAnye vanavAsinaH||120||

~~</div></div>~~

Goat-herders, sheep-herders, cowherders and forest-dwellers are acquainted with names and forms/identification of various medicinal herbs and the plants [120]

===== Limitation of knowledge of names of ~~medicines~~ only =====

====Limitation of knowledge of names of plants only ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

न नामज्ञानमात्रेण रूपज्ञानेन वा पुनः|

ओषधीनां परां प्राप्तिं कश्चिद्वेदितुमर्हति||१२१||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

na nāmajñānamātrēṇa rūpajñānēna vā punaḥ|

Line 2,030:

Line 1,822:

oShadhInAM parAM prAptiM kashcidveditumarhati||121||

~~</div></div>~~

Just by knowing the names and forms of herbs, though, no one can claim to have a perfect knowledge of ~~therapeutic~~ uses of ~~medicinal substances.~~ [121]

Just by knowing the names and forms of herbs, though, no one can claim to have a perfect knowledge of medicinal uses of the plants [121]

===== Importance of complete knowledge of therapeutic actions of plants =====

====Importance of complete knowledge of therapeutic actions of plants ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

योगवित्त्वप्यरूपज्ञस्तासां तत्त्वविदुच्यते|

किं पुनर्यो विजानीयादोषधीः सर्वथा भिषक्||१२२||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

yōgavittvapyarūpajñastāsāṁ tattvaviducyatē|

Line 2,049:

Line 1,838:

kiM punaryo vijAnIyAdoShadhIH sarvathA bhiShak||122||

~~</div></div>~~

If one who knows the uses and actions of the herbs, though not acquainted with their forms, is called a pharmacologist, then what need be said of the physician who knows the herbs from all ~~aspect.~~ [122]

If one who knows the uses and actions of the herbs, though not acquainted with their forms, is called a pharmacologist, then what need be said of the physician who knows the herbs from all aspects![122]

====Best physician ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

योगमासां तु यो विद्याद्देशकालोपपादितम्|

पुरुषं पुरुषं वीक्ष्य स ज्ञेयो भिषगुत्तमः||१२३||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

yōgamāsāṁ tu yō vidyāddēśakālōpapāditam|

Line 2,068:

Line 1,854:

puruShaM puruShaM vIkShya sa j~jeyo bhiShaguttamaH||123||

~~</div></div>~~

He is the best of physicians who knows the science of administration of drugs with due reference to country and season and who uses it only after examining each and every patient individually [123]

====Denouncing of quacks ====

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

यथा विषं यथा शस्त्रं यथाऽग्निरशनिर्यथा|

तथौषधमविज्ञातं विज्ञातममृतं यथा||१२४||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

yathā viṣaṁ yathā śastraṁ yathā'gniraśaniryathā|

Line 2,087:

Line 1,870:

tathauShadhamavij~jAtaM vij~jAtamamRutaM yathA||124||

~~</div></div>~~

A drug that is understood perfectly can be used as an ambrosia. But the use of a drug that is not understood perfectly may work as poison, weapon, fire or a "bolt of thunder" [124]

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

औषधं ह्यनभिज्ञातं नामरूपगुणैस्त्रिभिः|

विज्ञातं चापि दुर्युक्तमनर्थायोपपद्यते||१२५||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

auṣadhaṁ hyanabhijñātaṁ nāmarūpaguṇaistribhiḥ|

Line 2,104:

Line 1,884:

vij~jAtaM cApi duryuktamanarthAyopapadyate||125||

~~</div></div>~~

A drug whose name, form and properties are not known or a drug ,though known but not administered properly, spells disaster [125]

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

योगादपि विषं तीक्ष्णमुत्तमं भेषजं भवेत्|

भेषजं चापि दुर्युक्तं तीक्ष्णं सम्पद्यते विषम्||१२६||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

yōgādapi viṣaṁ tīkṣṇamuttamaṁ bhēṣajaṁ bhavēt|

Line 2,121:

Line 1,898:

bheShajaM cApi duryuktaM tIkShNaM sampadyate viSham||126||

~~</div></div>~~

Even a virulent poison can be converted into an excellent medicine when prepared and administered using the right methods. Conversely, even a good medicine may act as a potent poison if improperly administered [126].

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

तस्मान्न भिषजा युक्तं युक्तिबाह्येन भेषजम्|

धीमता किञ्चिदादेयं जीवितारोग्यकाङ्क्षिणा||१२७||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

tasmānna bhiṣajā yuktaṁ yuktibāhyēna bhēṣajam|

Line 2,138:

Line 1,912:

dhImatA ki~jcidAdeyaM jIvitArogyakA~gkShiNA||127||

~~</div></div>~~

Therefore an intelligent man who desires health and long life should not take any medicine prescribed by a physician who is a complete stranger to the application of medicines [127]

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

कुर्यान्निपतितो मूर्ध्नि सशेषं वासवाशनिः|

सशेषमातुरं कुर्यान्नत्वज्ञमतमौषधम्||१२८||

~~<div class="mw-collapsible-content">~~

kuryānnipatitō mūrdhni saśēṣaṁ vāsavāśaniḥ|

Line 2,155:

Line 1,926:

sasheShamAturaM kuryAnnatvaj~jamatamauShadham||128||

~~</div></div>~~

One may survive a bolt of lightning on one’s head, but one cannot expect to escape the fatal effects of medicines prescribed by an ignorant physician [128]

~~<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">~~

दुःखिताय शयानाय श्रद्दधानाय रोगिणे|

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नरो नरकपाती स्यात्तस्य सम्भाषणादपि||१३०||

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duḥkhitāya śayānāya śraddadhānāya rōgiṇē|

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naro narakapAtI syAttasya sambhAShaNAdapi||130||

~~</div></div>~~

The vainglorious and charlatan person , the quack, if administers medicines to the ailing bed-ridden patient who has implicit faith in him, such a quack is considered one who totally evades his duty, sinful, wicked and death incarnate. Even just by conversing with such quack may lead a person to hell [130]

</div>

==== Sinful deeds about exploitation of patient ====

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वरमाशीविषविषं क्वथितं ताम्रमेव वा|

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गृहीतमन्नं पानं वा वित्तं वा रोगपीडितात्||१३२||

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varamāśīviṣaviṣaṁ kvathitaṁ tāmramēva vā|

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gRuhItamannaM pAnaM vA vittaM vA rogapIDitAt||132||

~~</div></div>~~

It is better for a person who has put on the garb of the physician to take the venom of the cobra or melted copper or to swallow heated iron balls than to extort food, drink or money from a man who is afflicted with disease and has sought his aid [131-132]

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====Quest to become good physician ====

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भिषग्बुभूषुर्मतिमानतः स्वगुणसम्पदि|

परं प्रयत्नमातिष्ठेत् प्राणदः स्याद्यथा नृणाम्||१३३||

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bhiṣagbubhūṣurmatimānataḥ svaguṇasampadi|

paraṁ prayatnamātiṣṭhēt prāṇadaḥ syādyathā nr̥ṇām||133||

bhiShagbubhUShurmatimAnataH svaguNasampadi|

paraM prayatnamAtiShThet prANadaH syAdyathA nRuNAm||133||

~~</div></div>~~

Therefore, the intelligent person, who is aspiring to be a good physician, should always persevere to his best of abilities in acquiring the best qualities of a physician so that he may be a real giver of life to the people [133]

</div>

====Qualities of best drug and physician ====

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तदेव युक्तं भैषज्यं यदारोग्याय कल्पते|

स चैव भिषजां श्रेष्ठो रोगेभ्यो यः प्रमोचयेत्||१३४||

tadēva yuktaṁ bhaiṣajyaṁ yadārōgyāya kalpatē|

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sa caiva bhiṣajāṁ śrēṣṭhō rōgēbhyō yaḥ pramōcayēt||134||

tadēva yuktaṁ bhaiṣajyaṁ yadārōgyāya kalpatē|

tadeva yuktaM bhaiShajyaM yadArogyAya kalpate|

sa caiva bhiṣajāṁ śrēṣṭhō rōgēbhyō yaḥ pramōcayēt||134||

sa caiva bhiShajAM shreShTho rogebhyo yaH pramocayet||134||

The right medicine is that which restores the health and best physician is that who relieves patients from their diseases [134]

सम्यक्प्रयोगं सर्वेषां सिद्धिराख्याति कर्मणाम्|

सिद्धिराख्याति सर्वैश्च गुणैर्युक्तं भिषक्तमम्||१३५||

~~tadeva yuktaM bhaiShajyaM yadArogyAya kalpate|~~

~~sa caiva bhiShajAM shreShTho rogebhyo yaH pramocayet||134||~~

~~</div></div>~~

~~The right medicine is that which restores the health and best physician is that who relieves patients from their diseases [134]~~

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~~सम्यक्प्रयोगं सर्वेषां सिद्धिराख्याति कर्मणाम्|~~

~~सिद्धिराख्याति सर्वैश्च गुणैर्युक्तं भिषक्तमम्||१३५||~~

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samyakprayōgaṁ sarvēṣāṁ siddhirākhyāti karmaṇām|

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siddhirAkhyAti sarvaishca guNairyuktaM bhiShaktamam||135||

~~</div></div>~~

Correct application of all therapeutic measures is reflected in success in treatment (''siddhi'') and the success in turn reflects that physician is endowed with all the qualities of a best physician [135]

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====Summary ====

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तत्र श्लोकाः-

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सर्वमेतत् समाख्यातं पूर्वाध्याये महर्षिणा||१४०||

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tatra ślōkāḥ-

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AyurvedAgamo heturAgamasya pravartanam|

sUtraNasyAbhyanuj~~~jAnam[[Ayurveda]]sya~~ nirNayaH||136||

sUtraNasyAbhyanuj~jAnamAyurvedasya nirNayaH||136||

sampUrNaM kAraNaM ~~kAryam[[Ayurveda]]prayojanam~~|

sampUrNaM kAraNaM kAryamAyurvedaprayojanam|

hetavashcaiva doShAshca bheShajaM sa~ggraheNa ca||137||

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sarvametat samAkhyAtaM pUrvAdhyAye maharShiNA||140||

~~</div></div>~~

Here are the re-capitulatory verses

The origin of [[Ayurveda]], circumstances of its advent onto the world of the living, its promulgation, the approbation of the aphoristic compilation, the definition of [[Ayurveda]] (are described) [136]

The origin of Ayurveda, circumstances of its advent onto the world of the living, its promulgation, the approbation of the aphoristic compilation, the definition of Ayurveda (are described) [136]

A complete definition of the causes, the effects and objects of [[Ayurveda]]; and in brief causes and treatment of the ''dosha'' (have been described) [137]

A complete definition of the causes, the effects and objects of Ayurveda; and in brief causes and treatment of the ''dosha'' (have been described) [137]

Causes, ''dravya'', the tastes, three-fold classification of the drugs (or the''dravya''), rooters, fruiters, unctuous substances and salts (are described in brief) [138]

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The denunciation of quacks, points indicating the qualities of best physician; all these have been described in brief in the first chapter by the great sages [140]

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इत्यग्निवेशकृते तन्त्रे चरकप्रतिसंस्कृते सूत्रस्थाने दीर्घञ्जीवितीयो नाम प्रथमोऽध्यायः||१||

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ityagnivēśakr̥tē tantrē carakapratisaṁskr̥tē sūtrasthānē dīrghañjīvitīyō nāma prathamō'dhyāyaḥ||1||

~~</div></div>~~

Thus the first chapter entitled ‘The Quest for Longevity’ of the section of [[Sutra Sthana]] (general principles) of the treatise compiled by Agnivesha and revised by Charak is completed (1).

===''Tattva Vimarsha'' / Fundamental ~~Principles~~ ===

===''Tattva Vimarsha''/Fundamental Inferences ===

* The quest for longevity is the basic purpose of any medical science and the desire to live long is the important desire of every mankind. [verse 3]

* An iterative interchange between patients, practitioners, researchers and community (''Loka'') members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the ''Shastra'', or the Scientific body of knowledge, to help find the most effective formulations to ~~alleviate~~ diseases.

* An iterative interchange between patients, practitioners, researchers and community (''Loka'') members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the ''Shastra'', or the Scientific body of knowledge, to help find the most effective formulations to allieviate diseases.

* The patient seeks treatment when the disease becomes obstacle in daily routine of one’s life. [verse 6]

* Four objectives of life: Health is the root to attain all four basic objectives of life i.e. ''Dharma'' (guidelines for life or virtues), ''Artha'' (Wealth). ''Kama'' (desires or enjoyments) and ''Moksha'' (emancipation). The diseases are destroyer of all this as well as harmony within an environment. [verse 15]

* Three principles for knowledge of health and ~~disease~~: The best ways of knowledge about health and disease are knowing ''hetu''(causes), ''linga'' (symptomatology) and ''aushadha'' (therapeutics). [Verse 24]

* Three principles for knowledge of health and diseased: The best ways of knowledge about health and disease are knowing ''hetu''(causes), ''linga'' (symptomatology) and ''aushadha'' (therapeutics). [Verse 24]

* Six categories of everything : ''Samanya'' (principle of similarity), ''vishesha'' (principle of distinction), ''guna'' (property), ''dravya'' (~substance), ''karma'' (action) and ''samavaya'' (inherence/ inseparable ~~concomitance~~) are six basic categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable life span can be attained. [verse 27-29]

* Six categories of everything : ''Samanya'' (principle of similarity), ''vishesha'' (principle of distinction), ''guna'' (property), ''dravya'' (~substance), ''karma'' (action) and ''samavaya'' (inherence/ inseparable concomittance) are six basic categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable life span can be attained. [verse 27-29]

* Two ways for attainment of knowledge: ~~Knowledge~~ can be attained through ''~~nayana~~ chakshu'' (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and ''dhyana chakshu'' (through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]

* Two ways for attainment of knowledge: Ayurveda knowledge can be attained through ''dnyana chakshu'' (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and ''dhyana chakshu'' (through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]

* Eight divine powers after knowledge: After acquiring knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], one gets empowered with ''buddhi'' (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), ''siddhi'' (success), ''smriti'' (memory), ''medha'' (grasping power of intellect), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama'' (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness). [verse 39]

* Eight divine powers after knowledge: After acquiring knowledge of Ayurveda, one gets empowered with ''buddhi'' (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), ''siddhi'' (success), ''smriti'' (memory), ''medha'' (grasping power of intellect), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama'' (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness). [verse 39]

* Definition of [[Ayurveda]]: [[Ayurveda]] deals with all aspects of life (good, bad, happy and unhappy life) and its extent.

* Definition of Ayurveda: Ayurveda deals with all aspects of life (good, bad, happy and unhappy life) and its extent.

* Definition of ''Ayu'' (life) and its synonyms: ''Ayu'' means the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul. It shall be sustainable ~~and~~ in continuum. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like ''sukshma sharira'' (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of ''Ayu'' denotes life process with the ''atman'', also referred to as ''jiva-atman'' (or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The ''atma'' (or ''atman'', as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of ''paramatma'' i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.

* Definition of ''Ayu'' (life) and its synonyms: ''Ayu'' means the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul. It shall be sustainable, in continuum and live at all times. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like ''sukshma sharira'' (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of ''Ayu'' denotes life process with the ''atman'', also referred to as ''jiva-atman'' (or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The ''atma'' (or ''atman'', as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of ''paramatma'' i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.

* Superiority of [[Ayurveda]] over other ''vedas'': [[Ayurveda]] is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present life as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43].

* Superiority of Ayurveda over other ''vedas'': Ayurveda is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present life as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43].

* Theory of ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'': ''Samanya'' is the principle which enables to understand similarity between objects, while ''vishesha'' is the principle which enables to understand distinction between objects. [Verse 44-45]

* The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being and the objective of [[Ayurveda]]: Mind, soul and body constitute foundation of the living being i.e. sentient ''purusha'' (living person). The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to understand and explain all aspects of ''purusha''. [Verse 46-47]

* The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being and the objective of Ayurveda: Mind, soul and body constitute foundation of the living being i.e. sentient ''purusha'' (living person). The objective of Ayurveda is to understand and explain all aspects of ''purusha''. [Verse 46-47]

* Basic elements:''Panchamahabhuta'' (or the Five Elements), such as ''akasha'' (space),''vayu'' (air), ''tejas'' (fire), ''apa'' (water), and ''prithvi'' (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements (soul, mind, time and space) are collectively considered basic elements of this universe. All the entities in the universe can be categorized into ''chetana'' (sentient/animate) and ''achetana'' (insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul), but the presence or absence of sense organs. ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions): Sense objects (''shabda'" (sound), ''sparsha''(touch), ''rupa'' (appearance), ''rasa''(taste) and ''gandha''(smell)) are five ''vaisheshika'' (specific) properties.

* Basic elements:''Panchamahabhuta'' (or the Five Elements), such as ''akasha'' (space),''vayu'' (air), ''tejas'' (fire), ''apa'' (water), and ''prithvi'' (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements (soul, mind, time and space) are collectively considered basic elements (of this universe). All the entities in the universe can be categorized into ''chetana'' (sentient/animate) and ''achetana'' (insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul), but the presence or absence of sense organs. ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions): Sense objects (''shabda'" (sound), ''sparsha''(touch), ''rupa'' (appearance), ''rasa''(taste) and ''gandha''(smell)) are five ''vaisheshika'' (specific) properties.

*''Guru'' (heavy), ''laghu'' (light), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''ushna'' (hot), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''ruksha'' (dry), ''manda'' (mild/slow acting), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''sthira'' (stable/immobile), ''sara'' (unstable), ''mridu'' (soft), ''kathina'' (hard), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''pichchila'' (sticky), ''shlakshna'' (smooth), ''khara'' (rough), ''sthoola'' (gross), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''sandra'' (solid), ''drava'' (liquid/fluid) are twenty ''samanya'' (general) properties.

*''Buddhi'' (knowledge) with ''smriti'' (memory), ''chetana'' (consciousness), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''ahankara'' (ego), ''ichcha'' (inclination/desire), ''dwesha'' (aversion), ''sukha'' (comfort] , ''dukkha'' (discomfort), ''prayatna'' (effort) are properties of the ''atman'' or the Self.

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* The movement initiated by ''prayatna'' (effort) is called ''karma'' (action). [verse 49]

* ''Samavaya''(Inseparability) : ''Samavaya'' is the inherent property of blending of ''dravya'' (i.e., substances/elements e.g., prithvi or earth etc.) with their ''gunas'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions).This is universal because no ''dravya'' (substance) is devoid of ''property''. Every substance has some or the other property. [verse 50]

* ''Dravya'': ''Dravya'' is that in which the ''karma'' (action) and ''guna'' (properties) reside inherently and which is the ''samavayi'' ''karana'' (material cause) for any ''karya''(effect). [verse 51] Any entity which ~~fulfills~~ this criteria can be called as a ''dravya''. Matter, energy and force all have certain ''guna'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions) and they are ''samavayi karana'' for the effects, so all such entities can be called as ''dravya''.

* ''Dravya'': ''Dravya'' is that in which the ''karma'' (action) and ''guna'' (properties) reside inherently and which is the ''samavayi'' ''karana'' (material cause) for any ''karya''(effect). [verse 51] Any entity which fulfils this criteria can be called as a ''dravya''. Matter, energy and force all have certain ''guna'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions) and they are ''samavayi karana'' for the effects, so all such entities can be called as ''dravya''.

* ''Guna'': ''Guna'' (properties) [verse 51] are inherent in a ''dravya''. ''Karma'' (action) is also inherent in ''dravya''. But unlike ''karma'', ''gunas'' cannot initiate any movement on their own. The movements have to be initiated by ''karma''.

* ''Karma''(action/effect): Action is inherent in the very phenomenon of combination/conjunction and division/disjunction , and thus, inherent in ''dravya'' as well. The act of combining or dividing is ''karma'' (action). ''Karma'' does not require anything else. [verse 52]

* ''Karana'' (cause) and a definition of health: The factor responsible for action is ''karana'' (or cause), which results in a desired ''karya'' (effect or outcome), which is the end product of ''karma''. In this verse, ''samanya, vishesha'' etc. are termed as ''karana'' (cause), and the ''karya'' (desired effect) is ''dhatusamya'' i.e. ~~homeostasis~~. ''Dhatusamya'' leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]

* ''Karana'' (cause) and a definition of health: The factor responsible for action is ''karana'' (or cause), which results in a desired ''karya'' (effect or outcome), which is the end product of ''karma''. In this verse, ''samanya, vishesha'' etc. are termed as ''karana'' (cause), and the ''karya'' (desired effect) is ''dhatusamya'' i.e. homostasis. ''Dhatusamya'' leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]

* ''Karya'' [Results to be achieved]: The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to maintain and restore equilibrium among ''dhatus'' (the factors responsible for various physiological actions). [verse 53]

* ''Karya'' [Results to be achieved]: The objective of Ayurveda is to maintain and restore equilibrium among ''dhatus'' (the factors responsible for various physiological actions). [verse 53]

* Three causes of all diseases: Misuse/abuse, avoidance and excessive use of time, intellect and sense objects constitute the threefold cause of both psychic and somatic disorders. [verse 54]

* Locations for disease and pleasures: Body and mind are the locations of disorders as well as pleasures. The balanced use of time, intellect and sense objects is the cause of pleasures. Equilibrium leads to pleasures. [ verse 55]

* The soul: The soul is unchangeable, is ''para'' (superior), is the cause of consciousness (in conjunction with the mind, properties of bhutas and sense organs), is eternal and is the seer who witnesses all the actions. The soul doesn’t get affected by any abnormalities. [verse 56]

*''Dosha'': ''Vata, pitta'' and ''kapha'' are ''doshas'' associated with the body. ''Rajas'' and ''tamas'' are mental ''doshas''. These ''doshas'' can vitiate the body and mind respectively and are responsible for diseases. [verse 57]

** Treatment of these ''doshas'': Body-related ''dosha'' are pacified by the remedial measures of divine and rational therapeutics. The treatment for vitiated mental ''dosha'' includes knowledge of self, specific scientific knowledge, encouragement of mind, remembrance/memory of experiences and meditation/concentration. These are the principles of psychotherapy in [[Ayurveda]]. [verse 58]

** Treatment of these ''doshas'': Body-related ''dosha'' are pacified by the remedial measures of divine and rational therapeutics. The treatment for vitiated mental ''dosha'' includes knowledge of self, specific scientific knowledge, encouragement of mind, remembrance/memory of experiences and meditation/concentration. These are the principles of psychotherapy in Ayurveda. [verse 58]

** Properties of vata dosha & treatment: ''Vata dosha'' is ''ruksha''(dry), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''laghu'' (light), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''chala'' (mobile), ''vishada'' (non-slimy) and ''khara'' (rough) in properties and is pacified by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 59]

** Properties of ''pitta dosha'' and treatment: ''Pitta dosha'' is ''~~sneha~~'' (or, with unctuousness), ''ushna'' (hot), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''drava'' (liquid), ''amla'' (sour), ''sara'' (unstable) and ''katu'' (pungent) and is pacified immediately by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 60]

** Properties of ''pitta dosha'' and treatment: ''Pitta dosha'' is ''sasneha'' (or, with unctuousness), ''ushna'' (hot), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''drava'' (liquid), ''amla'' (sour), ''sara'' (unstable) and ''katu'' (pungent) and is pacified immediately by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 60]

** Properties of ''kapha dosha'' and treatment: The properties of ''kapha'' are ''guru'' (heavy), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''mrudu'' (soft), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''madhura'' (sweet), ''sthira'' (stable/immobile) and ''pichchila'' (slimy). This is subsided by (the drugs and substances having) opposite properties. [verse 61]

** Curability and incurability of diseases: Curable disorders are treated by drugs having opposite properties as mentioned above. The drugs should be administered after due considerations of three factors like ''desha, matra'' and ''kala''. ''Desha'' means the place of birth and ''residence'' of a person. ''Matra'' (dose) should be decided as per the strength of patient, stage of disease, severity of disease and ''agni''. In ''kala'', the season of precipitation of disease and time of administration of drug should be considered. These factors should be considered to achieve maximum efficacy of the treatments. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised. [verse 62]

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* All the material substances are classified into three categories: (1) Pacifiers of ''dosha'', (2) those which vitiate ''dhatu'' and (3) those maintaining health.[Verse 67]

===''Vidhi Vimarsha'' / Applied Inferences===

===''Vidhi Vimarsha''/Applied Inferences===

==== Threefold method of learning [[Ayurveda]] ====

==== Threefold method of learning Ayurveda ====

[[Ayurveda]] can be understood completely and effectively by gaining the threefold knowledge of ''hetu'' (cause), ''linga'' (symptoms) and ''aushadha''(remedies). [[Charak Samhita]] explains the causes, symptoms and remedies pertaining to health and diseases, and therefore should be used as the definitive source of knowledge of [[Ayurveda]].

Ayurveda can be understood completely and effectively by gaining the threefold knowledge of ''hetu'' (cause), ''linga'' (symptoms) and ''aushadha''(remedies). [[Charak Samhita]] explains the causes, symptoms and remedies pertaining to health and diseases, and therefore should be used as the definitive source of knowledge of Ayurveda.

</div>

===== Six categories =====

A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of [[Ayurveda]] (for maintenance and promotion of health, and for curing diseases) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as ''padartha'' by ''vaisheshika darshana''. But [[Ayurveda]] terms them as ''karana''(cause), with ''dhatusamya''(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. health) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore health. As per ''Sushruta Samhita'' the duty of a ''vaidya''(physician) is to maintain or restore health, can be executed in three ways-

A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of Ayurveda, when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of Ayurveda (for maintenance and promotion of health, and for curing diseases) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as ''padartha'' by ''vaisheshika darshana''. But Ayurveda terms them as ''karana''(cause), with ''dhatusamya''(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. health) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore health. As per ''Sushruta Samhita'' the duty of a ''vaidya''(physician) is to maintain or restore health, can be executed in three ways-

#By augmenting the body constituents which are depleted, to normal level.

#By depleting the body constituents which are abnormally increased, to normal level.

#By maintaining the body constituents which are proportionate, in their normal proportions.

For executing all these three duties, the ''vaidya'' (Ayurvedic practitioner or physician) requires ''samanya'' which leads to increase and ''vishesha'', which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. ''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' reside in ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', so a ''vaidya'' needs to study them. Relationship of ''guna'' and ''karma'' with ''dravya'' is ''samavaya''. ''Samavaya'' is responsible for existence of all the three - ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma''. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. [[Ayurveda]] gives more importance to ''gunas'' (properties and also qualities). So ''guna'' is mentioned first. E.g. ''Vacha'' is described as ''ugragandha'' (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, ''vaidya'' may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative.

For executing all these three duties, the ''vaidya'' (Ayurvedic practitioner or physician) requires ''samanya'' which leads to increase and ''vishesha'', which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. ''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' reside in ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', so a ''vaidya'' needs to study them. Relationship of ''guna'' and ''karma'' with ''dravya'' is ''samavaya''. ''Samavaya'' is responsible for existence of all the three - ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma''. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. Ayurveda gives more importance to ''gunas'' (properties and also qualities). So ''guna'' is mentioned first. E.g. ''Vacha'' is described as ''ugragandha'' (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, ''vaidya'' may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative.

It may appear that the concepts of ''samanya'' etc. are philosophical. But [[Ayurveda]] applies these concepts in practice.

It may appear that the concepts of ''samanya'' etc. are philosophical. But Ayurveda applies these concepts in practice.

Out of these six categories, ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' truly exist. ''Samanya, vishesha'' and ''samavaya'' do not exist in the physical world. They exist in a metaphysical sense.

==== Definition of [[Ayurveda]] ====

==== Definition of Ayurveda ====

Here four types of ''ayu'' are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a ''karmic'' consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 30. [[Ayurveda]] describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. [[Ayurveda]] also describes ''ayu pramana'' (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of [[Sutra Sthana]], guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like ''dashavidha pareeksha'' (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section [[Indriya Sthana]] helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. [[Ayurveda]] also describes ''ayu'' itself i.e. definition and understanding about ''Ayu''.

Here four types of ''ayu'' are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a ''karmic'' consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 30. Ayurveda describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. Ayurveda also describes ''ayu pramana'' (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of [[Sutra Sthana]], guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like ''dashavidha pareeksha'' (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section [[Indriya Sthana]] helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. Ayurveda also describes ''ayu'' itself i.e. definition and understanding about ''Ayu''.

==== Definition of ''Ayu'' and its synonyms ====

[[Ayurveda]] discusses about ''Ayu'' which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides body it also consists of ''indriya'' (sense organs), ''mana''(mind) and ''atma''(soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, memory etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as ''paramanu'' (cell). The knowledge of ''ayu'' is explained by keeping such a living body in view.

Ayurveda discusses about ''Ayu'' which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides body it also consists of ''indriya'' (sense organs), ''mana''(mind) and ''atma''(soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, memory etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as ''paramanu'' (cell). The knowledge of ''ayu'' is explained by keeping such a living body in view.

[[Ayurveda]] accepts separate existence of ''indriya'' (sense organs). ''Indriya'' are made up of the five ''mahabhutas''. Each ''indriya'' is composed of portions of all five ''mahabhutas'', with predominance of one of them. Accepting separate existence of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition as made up of ''mahabhutas'' is a significant concept philosophically, and also having important practical applications. Each ''indriya'' operates with the help of certain organs and structures called as ''adhishthana'' (substratum). E.g. eyes, specially retina, optic nerve and the centre for vision in the brain, all can be termed as ''adhishthana''. There is separate existence of ''indriya'', which is very subtle and therefore invisible. Since all these are made up of ''mahabhutas'', with specific diet and specific medicines they can be treated. This is because food and medicines(drugs) are also made up of ''mahabhutas''. Subtle portion from food nourishes ''indriyas'', and medicines can influence and regularise their functions. One can realise, that even the conditions pertaining to ''adhishthana'' like optic nerve degeneration are very much difficult to treat, so one can imagine about the conditions related to ''indriya''. But with acceptance of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition by ''mahabhutas'' provides scope to treat conditions not only pertaining to ''adhishthana'', but also ''indriya''.

Ayurveda accepts separate existence of ''indriya'' (sense organs). ''Indriya'' are made up of the five ''mahabhutas''. Each ''indriya'' is composed of portions of all five ''mahabhutas'', with predominance of one of them. Accepting separate existence of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition as made up of ''mahabhutas'' is a significant concept philosophically, and also having important practical applications. Each ''indriya'' operates with the help of certain organs and structures called as ''adhishthana'' (substratum). E.g. eyes, specially retina, optic nerve and the centre for vision in the brain, all can be termed as ''adhishthana''. There is separate existence of ''indriya'', which is very subtle and therefore invisible. Since all these are made up of ''mahabhutas'', with specific diet and specific medicines they can be treated. This is because food and medicines(drugs) are also made up of ''mahabhutas''. Subtle portion from food nourishes ''indriyas'', and medicines can influence and regularise their functions. One can realise, that even the conditions pertaining to ''adhishthana'' like optic nerve degeneration are very much difficult to treat, so one can imagine about the conditions related to ''indriya''. But with acceptance of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition by ''mahabhutas'' provides scope to treat conditions not only pertaining to ''adhishthana'', but also ''indriya''.

Similarly accepting separate existence of ''mana'' (mind) is also significant. Because not only by correcting the higher functions of brain which are attributed to mind, but by directly acting on mind, [[Ayurveda]] provides better scope for it’s treatment. Accepting existence of atma (soul) is again very much significant. ''Buddhi'' (intelligence), ''smriti'' (memory) etc. are attributes of ''atma''. By accepting separate existence of ''atma'', they can be better understood and treated to improve.

Similarly accepting separate existence of ''mana'' (mind) is also significant. Because not only by correcting the higher functions of brain which are attributed to mind, but by directly acting on mind, Ayurveda provides better scope for it’s treatment. Accepting existence of atma (soul) is again very much significant. ''Buddhi'' (intelligence), ''smriti'' (memory) etc. are attributes of ''atma''. By accepting separate existence of ''atma'', they can be better understood and treated to improve.

''Atma'' along with the subtle ''indriyas'' and ''mana'' when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, ''ayu''(life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilisation of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per [[Ayurveda]], it can be understood that ''atma'' has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and ''atma'' which enters in it with ''indriya'' and ''mana'', continues till death. At the time of death, ''atma'' along with ''indriya'' and ''mana'' leaves the body. When ''atma'' realises that it is distinct from the body, ''indriya'' and ''mana'', it gets ''moksha'' (emancipation).

''Atma'' along with the subtle ''indriyas'' and ''mana'' when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, ''ayu''(life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilisation of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per Ayurveda, it can be understood that ''atma'' has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and ''atma'' which enters in it with ''indriya'' and ''mana'', continues till death. At the time of death, ''atma'' along with ''indriya'' and ''mana'' leaves the body. When ''atma'' realises that it is distinct from the body, ''indriya'' and ''mana'', it gets ''moksha'' (emancipation).

====Synonyms of ''Ayu''(life)====

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''Ayu'' is described with various synonyms. Each one of them is significant and they provide understanding about different aspects about ''Ayu''. Its synonym, ''dhari'' (the support), indicates that as long as the conjugation of these four factors continues, the living body is protected. Any threat to the existence is counteracted by protective mechanisms like the healing of wounds. As soon as there is a disjunction of these factors, death occurs and the decomposition of body starts. ''Jeevitam'' (animation) suggests that only as long as the conjugation of these factors continues, there is liveliness, responsive and sentient nature. This is lost as soon as there is disjunction. ''Nityaga'' (the flux) suggests that this conjugation of four factors is a dynamic process, a continuum. The living body keeps on undergoing changes, at every moment. ''Anubandha'' (the link) suggests that this conjugation is continued as a link every moment. It also forms a link at its beginning point with the previous life, and at the end point, with the next life.

====Superiority of [[Ayurveda]] over other ''vedas'':====

====Superiority of Ayurveda over other ''vedas'':====

Certain branches of ''veda'' like ''Dhanurveda'' (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like ''upanishada'' and ''aranyaka'' are beneficial for the life after death. But [[Ayurveda]] is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.

Certain branches of ''veda'' like ''Dhanurveda'' (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like ''upanishada'' and ''aranyaka'' are beneficial for the life after death. But Ayurveda is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.

====Theory of ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'':====

''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' are pertaining to ''dravya'', ''guna'' and ''karma''. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through ''indriya'' (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the ''buddhi'' (intelligence), which is an attribute of the ''atma'' (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as ''jnanotpatti'' (manifestation of knowledge). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is refered in the verse 45 as ''ekatva'' (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called ''samanya'' which helps us to understand similarity (''samanyam ekatvakaram''). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle ''vishesha'' due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (''prithaktvakrita''). This is the brief essence of the principle of ''Samanya-vishesha''. This concept is also found in ''vaisheshika darshana'' (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but [[Ayurveda]] has applied this concept in practice.

''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' are pertaining to ''dravya'', ''guna'' and ''karma''. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through ''indriya'' (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the ''buddhi'' (intelligence), which is an attribute of the ''atma'' (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as ''jnanotpatti'' (manifestation of knowledge). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is refered in the verse 45 as ''ekatva'' (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called ''samanya'' which helps us to understand similarity (''samanyam ekatvakaram''). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle ''vishesha'' due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (''prithaktvakrita''). This is the brief essence of the principle of ''Samanya-vishesha''. This concept is also found in ''vaisheshika darshana'' (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but Ayurveda has applied this concept in practice.

* Continuous use of ''dravya'', ''guna'' or ''karma'' which are similar to the body constituents, results in the increase of them. Whereas, continuous use of dissimilar ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', result in the decrease of them/ e.g. eating the meat of animals causes an increase in the content of muscle tissue in the human body (''dravya samanya''). But not only this, eating of other food articles like ''masha'' (black gram) also results in an increase of muscle tissue. This happens because of the properties present in ''masha'' like ''guru'', ''picchila'', ''sthira'' etc. are similar to that of muscle tissue, although muscle tissue and black gram are different materials (''guna samanya''). Also, activities like rest and proper sleep induce similar properties like sthira, guru etc. which help in increase in muscle tissue (''Karma samanya'').

* These effects on the body of ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' having ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'' can be exerted only when they are applied directly to the body (''pravrittih ubhayasya''). Also when we use any ''dravya, guna'' or ''karma, samanya'' and ''vishesha'' both come to action, with respect to different body constituents. E.g. ''Maricha'' (black pepper) decreases ''kapha'' and ''vata'', but at the same time increases ''pitta''. While using food or medicines, we must understand that it will be favorable to certain body constituents, but at the same time it will be unfavorable to other constituents (''ubhayasya pravrittih''). The effects are like double edged sword. By keeping this in mind one should make appropriate use of food or medicines.

====Basic elements:====

All the objects can be classified as animate and inanimate. The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul) in specific objects. Because ''atma'' is described as ''vibhu'' (ubiquitous, i.e. present everywhere). But the presence of ''atma'' is manifested through sense organs. Therefore, presence or absence of ''indriya'' (sense organs) is taken as the base for classification of animate and inanimate objects. Sense organs here do not refer to only externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. ''Indriya'' are subtle and therefore imperceptible entities. Externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. are just their tools. E.g. plants do not exhibit external sensory organs like eyes etc., but they have all the sensations which are realised by subtle ''indriya'' present internally. It is significant to note that it was known to ancient Indians, and also to ''Ayurvedic'' physicians specially, that plants do possess sensations like photosensitivity, auditory, taste, olfactory and tactile sensation i.e. all five sensations [verse 48]

* To acquire knowledge, a person interacts with the external world. For this purpose, he mainly makes use of his five senses. In other words, the vehicles of interaction between the internal and external world are the five senses. With this view point, the external world is composed of objects of our senses. In the words of Nobel laureate Sir James Jeans (in his book ‘The New Background of Science’), matter is that which is capable of originating objective sensations. Since there are five objects of senses, the worldly objects can be categorised into five groups. From where do these five categories originate? There must be five sources of origin of these fundamental elements, the five ''mahabhutas''. ''Bhuta'' (or ''bhoota'') means anything which exists or anything which has evolved. Since everything evolved from these five (''pancha''), they are referred as ''maha'' (great) ''bhuta''(element). ''Mahabhutas'' exist in purest unconjugated, further indivisible forms termed as ''tanmatra'' in the beginning of the evolution of the universe. But eventually, they combine with each other by means of specific phenomena to form ''mahabhutas'' and then several conjugations result in formation of worldly objects. Everything in the present universe is composed of all five ''mahabhutas''. Even the so called elementary particles are composed of them. Being so subtle they cannot be perceived physically. But their existence can be inferred by observing their functions. The theory of five ''mahabhutas'' is immensely important to understand [[Ayurveda]]. This theory is being studied presently worldwide. This would be evident from the fact that during 1990s, five international seminars were held on this concept of five ''mahabhutas'' by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts in India, in which eminent scientists from international arena participated and presented their papers. E.g. the ex-chief of Atomic Commission of India, Dr. Raja Ramanna, presented a paper on ‘''Chit-Achit'' and ''Ishwar''’.

* To acquire knowledge, a person interacts with the external world. For this purpose, he mainly makes use of his five senses. In other words, the vehicles of interaction between the internal and external world are the five senses. With this view point, the external world is composed of objects of our senses. In the words of Nobel laureate Sir James Jeans (in his book ‘The New Background of Science’), matter is that which is capable of originating objective sensations. Since there are five objects of senses, the worldly objects can be categorised into five groups. From where do these five categories originate? There must be five sources of origin of these fundamental elements, the five ''mahabhutas''. ''Bhuta'' (or ''bhoota'') means anything which exists or anything which has evolved. Since everything evolved from these five (''pancha''), they are referred as ''maha'' (great) ''bhuta''(element). ''Mahabhutas'' exist in purest unconjugated, further indivisible forms termed as ''tanmatra'' in the beginning of the evolution of the universe. But eventually, they combine with each other by means of specific phenomena to form ''mahabhutas'' and then several conjugations result in formation of worldly objects. Everything in the present universe is composed of all five ''mahabhutas''. Even the so called elementary particles are composed of them. Being so subtle they cannot be perceived physically. But their existence can be inferred by observing their functions. The theory of five ''mahabhutas'' is immensely important to understand Ayurveda. This theory is being studied presently worldwide. This would be evident from the fact that during 1990s, five international seminars were held on this concept of five ''mahabhutas'' by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts in India, in which eminent scientists from international arena participated and presented their papers. E.g. the ex-chief of Atomic Commission of India, Dr. Raja Ramanna, presented a paper on ‘''Chit-Achit'' and ''Ishwar''’.

* The composition of human body is studied in terms of ''mahabhutas''. ''Dosha- dhatu'' and ''mala'', which are the most important body constituents, are also composed of ''mahabhutas''. Every object in the present universe is composed of ''mahabhutas'', therefore can be used as medicine, if properly studied. The medicines therefore are administered considering their ''panchabhautika'' composition. In manufacturing of drugs also one has to understand the changes in terms of ''mahabhutas''. Thus the concept of five mahabhutas is a core fundamental concept is applicable in every field of [[Ayurveda]].

* The composition of human body is studied in terms of ''mahabhutas''. ''Dosha- dhatu'' and ''mala'', which are the most important body constituents, are also composed of ''mahabhutas''. Every object in the present universe is composed of ''mahabhutas'', therefore can be used as medicine, if properly studied. The medicines therefore are administered considering their ''panchabhautika'' composition. In manufacturing of drugs also one has to understand the changes in terms of ''mahabhutas''. Thus the concept of five mahabhutas is a core fundamental concept is applicable in every field of Ayurveda.

* All the activities in the living body are possible only in the presence of ''atma'' (soul). Also they are always in relation to ''dik'' (Orientation in space) and ''kala'' (season). The concept of space-time resembles with the concept of ''dik-kala''. Therefore ''atma- dik'' and ''kala'' are considered as ''nimitta karana'' (incidental cause) for every activity.

* ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions)- ''Guna'' in [[Ayurveda]] are not studied in terms of physical or chemical properties of various objects, but in terms of their effects on the living body. E.g. a food article or a drug is called as ''guru''(heavy) not as per its mass or weight. But by its property to augment body tissues. ''Ruksha'' (dry) is that which dessicates.

* ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions)- ''Guna'' in Ayurveda are not studied in terms of physical or chemical properties of various objects, but in terms of their effects on the living body. E.g. a food article or a drug is called as ''guru''(heavy) not as per its mass or weight. But by its property to augment body tissues. ''Ruksha'' (dry) is that which dessicates.

* Out of the 41 ''guna'' mentioned here, ''shabda'' (sound), ''sparsha'' (touch), ''rupa'' (appearance- shape, colour, etc.), ''rasa'' (taste), ''gandha'' (smell) are termed as ''artha'', because they are the objects of senses. They are specialised characteristics of particular ''mahabhutas''. ''Guru'' etc. ''guna'' are in the form of 10 pairs of opposite characteristics. These are the ''guna'' present in the tissues of living body, therefore they are called as ''sharira'' (pertaining to body) ''guna''. They are also present in the food articles and drugs. They manifest in an object, because of specific composition of ''mahabhutas''. Therefore, they are termed as ''bhautika'' (pertaining to ''bhutas''). ''Ichcha'' (desire), ''buddhi'' (including intellect, power of resolution, memory, awareness, sense of ego), ''dvesha'' (hatred), ''sukha'' (pleasure), ''dukkha'' (pain), and ''prayatna'' (effort) are six ''guna'' that are termed as ''atma guna'' (attributes of soul). ''Para'' and ten other properties are very much important in formulating treatment, hence termed as ''chikitsya guna''.

* ''Atma'' (soul) is ubiquitous. ''Prayatna'' (effort) is described as an attribute of ''atma''. An action is initiated in the presence of ''atma''. It is said that the attribute ''prayatna'' (effort) provides initiation for the action. The term ''karma'' is also used in different other sense elsewhere. E.g. it refers to [[Panchakarma]] (five specific therapies for purification of the body) and ''purvakarma'' (previous deeds of a person). To differentiate the term ''karma'' here, the word ''cheshtitam'' is used. By using the word, it is clarified that here this word is used in the sense of movements.

* ''Samavaya'' (Inseparable concomitance)- ''Samavaya'' is the inherent inseparable concomitance of ''prithvi'' etc. (''dravya)'' with their ''guṇas'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions). This relationship is inseparable, because ''dravya'' and ''guna-karma'' evolve together. If a ''dravya'' is destroyed, ''guna-karma'' cannot exist and vice a versa. ''Dravya, guna-karma'' evolve and get destroyed, and are replaced by newer ones, but their relationship never changes. Whenever a ''dravya'' exists, it is never devoid of ''guna-karma''. In this sense, it is said that ''samavaya'' is eternal. Out of the six categories of existants, ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' actually exist. But if their mutual relationship is not there, none of them can exist. Therefore, ''samavaya'' is the base of existance for everything. [ verse 50]

====''Dosha:''====

The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three ''doshas''. [[Ayurveda]] studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three ''doshas''. This system of three ''doshas'', is very important practically for each physician. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successfull treatment. While a physician having in depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three ''doshas'' i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand [[Ayurveda]].

The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three ''doshas''. Ayurveda studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three ''doshas''. This system of three ''doshas'', is very important practically for each physician. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successfull treatment. While a physician having in depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three ''doshas'' i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand Ayurveda.

====''Rasa'' [taste sensations]====

====''Rasa'' [taste sensations]:====

Every ''dravya'' in the present universe is composed of specific mode of conjugation of all five ''mahabhutas''. ''Rasa'' (taste) is a specialized property of ''apa mahabhuta''. When ''apa mahabhuta'' is in ''tanmatra'' (purest unconjugated form) state, it does not possess taste. When it comes in contact with ''prithvi'', the taste is formed. The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to combination of other three ''mahabhuta'' like ''akasha, vayu'' and ''tejas''. [verse 64]

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* ''Dhatu pradushana'' (vitiating ''dhatu''): There are some substances which by their very nature harm the body e.g. ''mandaka dadhi'' (immature curd/yogurt), slow and acute poisons etc.

* ''Swasthavrittahita'' (maintaining health): The substances which help in maintaining, promotion and preservation of the health of the healthy persons are ''swasthavratta hitakara''. ''Rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'' as well as daily and seasonal regimens etc. are belonging to this group. Red rice, old rice, wheat, barley, green gram etc are good for daily use to maintain and promote health. The primary function of the substances under this category is to maintain the equilibrium of the ''dosha'' so that they are neither increased/aggravated nor decreased. Thus they help normal functioning of the body. [verse 67]

* [[Ayurveda]] in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as ''bhavana'' (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat ''ama'' conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical [[Ayurveda]] does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.

* Ayurveda in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as ''bhavana'' (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat ''ama'' conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical Ayurveda does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.

* ''Samalah'' indicates byproducts such as bitumen. Salt, minerals and alkaline products obtained from earth are also included in this group. Minerals and metals obtained from earth are first subjected to purification and then converting to nano particles (''bhasma'') by the various methods described separately for each product. The metals are subjected to anaerobic incinerating processes to convert it into ''bhasma'' which is nano form of the metal. Thus the earth-products becomes free from side effects of the gross metal and very potent and cures many diseases when administered with specific decoctions. It also reduces the bulk of doses of the herbal substances when mixed with these ''bhasma''. (Verse 70).

* Plant origin drugs are classified in four groups viz. ''vanaspati'' (direct fruiters), ''virudha'' (creepers), ''vanaspatya'' (flower-based fruiters) and ''aushadhi'' (herbs).

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* Physician should use only those drugs which are well known from every aspect (pharmacological effect). The unknown drug may act as poison and kill the patient. Therefore, if a physician knows all the three aspects viz., names, forms and properties of drugs can treat the patients successfully. Hence the patient should not take medicine from pseudo-physicians and similarly a physician should not prescribe a drug which is not well known (124-133).

* Correct drug and knowledgeable physician are the first two important pillars of successful treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to know the qualities of correct medicine and a good physician. The drugs having all the requisite properties and actions required for cure a particular disease is considered as the proper drug. For a good physician, it is necessary to have all the knowledge of the principles underlying the correct application of medicines. Sometimes a randomly prescribed medicine by a pseudo physician also succeed in alleviating a disease and in that case the credit is not his but it is just accidental. Thus, only that physician is best who has proficiency in the principle governing the use of drug, knows all the aspects of the medicine to select and thus has the capability of curing the diseases (134).

* [[Ayurveda]] has a very scientific principle of ''karya-karana vada'' which says every action (''karya'') has its specific cause (''karana''). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the physician is proficient in [[Ayurveda]] and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in ''Khuddaka chatushpada'' (Charak Sutra l0/ 6) (135)

* Ayurveda has a very scientific principle of ''karya-karana vada'' which says every action (''karya'') has its specific cause (''karana''). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the physician is proficient in Ayurveda and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in ''Khuddaka chatushpada'' (Charak Sutra l0/ 6) (135)

* All over the world, plants are recognized by their scientific names (in Latin, mostly), and hence generally accepted Latin names of plants mentioned in this chapter are given here to facilitate their wide understanding.

</div>

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#Sattwa - Mind

#Atman- Conscious element in the living being(soul)

#~~[[Ayurveda]]watarana~~- Evolution of [[Ayurveda]] on the earth

#Ayurvedawatarana- Evolution of Ayurveda on the earth

#abhyañjana (अभ्यञ्जन): massage

#añjana (अञ्जन): antimony

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#sudhā (सुधा): lime

#śuṅgāḥ (शुङ्गाः): off-shoots

===References===

~~[[Category:Sutra Sthana]]~~

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-{{#seo:
-|title=Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya
-|titlemode=append
-|keywords=Longevity, Ayurveda, science of life, Dravya, material, Mahabhuta, Samanya, Vishesha, Guna, Karma, Rasa, Dosha, Vata, Pitta, Kapha, Rajas, Tamas, Sattva, qualities of good and bad physicians
-|description=The title of Charak Samhita’s very first chapter, Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya, literally means the chapter on longevity
-}}
-<big>'''Sutra Sthana Chapter 1. Fundamental principles of Longevity'''</big>
-<big>'''Abstract'''</big>
-<div style="text-align:justify;">
-The title of Charak Samhita’s very first chapter, Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya, literally means the chapter on longevity. This is symbolic, because it implies that [[Ayurveda]] is not merely the science of life, but also a science of longevity. This chapter deliberates on the purpose of long life and health as the means of achieving the four primary instincts of human beings - virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation (purushartha chatushtaya) – by way of explaining some of the basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and defining its scope. The chapter introduces fundamental principles of [[Ayurveda]], including its definition, objective, concept of three bodily (sharira) doshas and their qualities, and two mental ([[manasa]]) [[dosha]] and their treatment. The [[samanya]](similarity) and [[vishesha]](dissimilarity) theory, pharmaco-therapeutic aspects, classification of drugs, list of herbs and other animal products useful in purification and pacification therapies are highlighted. Through these deliberations, this chapter essentially lays the foundation for building the body of knowledge on life sciences and healthcare that [[Charak Samhita]] is known for.
-'''Keywords''': Longevity, [[Ayurveda]], science of life, [[Dravya]], material, [[Mahabhuta]], [[Samanya]], [[Vishesha]], [[Guna]], [[Karma]], [[Rasa]], [[Dosha]], [[Vata]], [[Pitta]], [[Kapha]], [[Rajas]], [[Tamas]], [[Sattva]], qualities of good and bad physicians.
 {{Infobox
 |title = Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya
@@ Line 28: / Line 12: @@
 |label5 = Other Sections
 |data5 = [[Nidana Sthana]], [[Vimana Sthana]],  [[Sharira Sthana]],  [[Indriya Sthana]], [[Chikitsa Sthana]], [[Kalpa Sthana]], [[Siddhi Sthana]]
+|header5 = Other Chapters
+|label6 = ''Bheshaja Chatushka''
+|data6 = [[Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya]], [[Apamarga Tanduliya Adhyaya]], [[Aragvadhiya Adhyaya]], [[Shadvirechanashatashritiya Adhyaya]]
+|label7 = ''Swastha Chatushka''
+|data7 = [[Matrashiteeya]], [[Tasyashiteeya]], [[Naveganadharaniya]], [[Indriyopakramaniya]]
+|label8 = ''Nirdesha Chatushka''
+|data8 = [[Khuddakachatushpada]], [[Mahachatushpada]], [[Tistraishaniya]], [[Vatakalakaliya]]
+|label9 = ''Kalpana Chatushka''
+|data9 = [[Snehadhyaya]], [[Swedadhyaya]], [[Upakalpaniya]], [[Chikitsaprabhritiya]]
+|label10 = ''Roga Chatushka''
+|data10 = [[Kiyanta Shiraseeya]], [[Trishothiya]], [[Ashtodariya]], [[Maharoga]]
+|label11 = ''Yojana Chatushka''
+|data11 = [[Ashtauninditiya]], [[Langhanabrimhaniya]], [[Santarpaniya]], [[Vidhishonitiya]]
+|label12 = ''Annapana Chatushka''
+|data12 = [[Yajjah Purushiya]], [[Atreyabhadrakapyiya]], [[Annapanavidhi Adhyaya]], [[Vividhashitapitiya]]
+|label13 = ''Sangrahadvaya''
+|data13 = [[Dashapranayataneeya]], [[Arthedashmahamooliya]]
 }}
+==[[Sutra Sthana]] Chapter 1, Chapter on longevity ==
+===Abstract===
+ <div style="text-align:justify;">
+The title of [[Charak Samhita]]’s very first chapter, [[Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya]], literally means the chapter on longevity.  This is symbolic, because it implies that Ayurveda is not merely the science of life, but also a science of longevity. This chapter deliberates on the purpose of long life and health as the means of achieving ''purushartha chatustaya'', or the four primary instincts of human beings (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) – by way of explaining some of the basic tenets of Ayurveda and defining the scope of Ayurveda. The chapter introduces fundamental principles of Ayurveda, including its definition, objective, concept of three ''sharira'' (bodily) ''doshas'' and their qualities, and two ''manasa'' (mental) ''dosha'' and their treatment. The ''samanya''(similarity) and ''vishesha''(dissimilarity) theory, pharmaco-therapeutic aspects, classification of drugs, list of herbs and other animal products useful in purification and pacification therapies are highlighted. Through these deliberations, this chapter essentially lays the foundation for building the body of knowledge on life sciences and healthcare that [[Charak Samhita]] is known for.
+'''Keywords''': Longevity, Ayurveda, science of life, ''Dravya'', material, ''Mahabhuta'', ''Samanya'', ''Vishesha'', ''Guna'', ''Karma'', ''Rasa'', ''Dosha'', ''Vata'', ''Pitta'', ''Kapha'', ''Rajas'', ''Tamas'', ''Sattva'', qualities of good and bad physicians.
 ===Introduction===
-The [[Charak Samhita]] begins with a chapter detailing the means to attaining a long, healthy and happy life, explaining certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] and the consequent foundational concepts necessary to build a body of knowledge. This chapter provides a description of the origin, definition, and scope of [[Ayurveda]]. It further deliberates on the critical concepts of ''Ayu'' (life) and its qualitative dimensions, and ''arogya'' (health) as a means of achieving the four fundamental instincts (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) of life on this earth.
+The [[Charak Samhita]] begins with a chapter detailing the means to attaining a long, healthy and happy life, explaining certain basic tenets of Ayurveda and the consequent foundational concepts necessary to build a body of knowledge. This chapter provides a description of the origin, definition, and scope of Ayurveda. It further deliberates on the critical concepts of ''Ayu'' (or the life-span of a human being) and its qualitative dimensions, and ''arogya'' (or health) as a means of achieving the four fundamental instincts (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) of life on this earth.
-In [[Ayurveda]], the process of scientific inquiry and creation of knowledge involves the ''loka'' (the community of people or societies at large). Within the community, it is believed that scientific knowledge is created by the interchange of information between patients, practitioners and researchers through various modes of interaction and observation. The knowledge created in this process is theorized, supported with applicable evidence and logic, and then documented systematically in the ''shastra''(scientific scriptures). This explains the mode of ''Ayurvedic'' knowledge creation (which corresponds with the current method of scientific inquiry and knowledge creation). Once documented, the “higher levels” of scientific knowledge – or inferences -  of the ''shastra'' are delivered again to the ''loka'' for public use. Thus, knowledge creation is a dynamic, iterative process involving the ''loka'' and the ''shastra''. When this dynamic interaction stops, knowledge becomes static and is dropped back in the history and the search for new alternative knowledge continues.
+In Ayurveda, the process of scientific inquiry and creation of knowledge involves the ''loka'' i.e. the community of people or societies at large. Within the community, it is believed that scientific knowledge is created by the interchange of information between patients, practitioners and researchers through various modes of interaction. The knowledge created in this process is theorized, supported with applicable evidence and logic, and then documented systematically in the ''shastra'' or scriptures. This explains the mode of ''Ayurvedic'' knowledge creation (which corresponds with the current method of scientific inquiry and knowledge creation). Once documented, the “higher levels” of scientific knowledge – or inferences -  of the ''shastra'' are delivered again to the ''loka'' for public use. Thus, knowledge creation is a dynamic, iterative process involving the ''loka'' and the ''shastra''. When this dynamic interaction stops, knowledge becomes static and is dropped back in the history and the search for new alternative knowledge continues.
-The process of ''ayurvedavatarana'' (origin/emergence of [[Ayurveda]]) as described in this chapter should be viewed from this perspective, symbolic of this iterative process of creation of knowledge. It touches upon certain basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]] such as the four dimensional concept of ''ayu'' or life and its qualitative categorization into ''sukhayu'' (happy life), ''duhkhayu'' (unhappy life), ''hitayu'' (positive life in harmony with self and the surroundings), and ''ahitayu''(negative life, with negative state of mind and in disharmony with the surroundings), reflecting on the individual as well as the social aspects of one’s life. The chapter also deals with the doctrine of ''samanya'' (similar) and ''vishesha'' (dissimilar), ''dravya samgraha''(knowledge of physical material) attributes of physical and mental ''[[dosha]]s'', the basic causes of ill-health, the origin of ''rasa'' (taste) and its significance, the attributes of six tastes, the nature of the material world, and the whole range of ayurvedic materia medica. Overall, as one can expect from the very first chapter of any treatise, this chapter gives guidelines about important fundamental concepts of [[Ayurveda]] that are necessary to understand the whole text.
+The process of ''ayurvedavatarana'' (origin/emergence of Ayurveda) as described in this chapter should be viewed from this perspective, symbolic of this iterative process of creation of knowledge. It touches upon certain basic tenets of Ayurveda such as the four dimensional concept of ''ayu'' or life and its qualitative categorization into ''sukhayu'' (happy life), ''duhkhayu'' (unhappy life), ''hitayu'' (positive life in harmony with self and the surroundings), and ''ahitayu''(negative life, with negative state of mind and in disharmony with the surroundings), reflecting on the individual as well as the social aspects of one’s life. The chapter also deals with the doctrine of ''samanya'' (similar) and ''vishesha'' (dissimilar), ''dravya samgraha''(knowledge of physical material) attributes of physical and mental ''doshas'', the basic causes of ill-health, the origin of ''rasa'' (taste) and its significance, the attributes of six tastes, the nature of the material world, and the whole range of ayurvedic materia medica. Overall, as one can expect from the very first chapter of any treatise, this chapter gives guidelines about important fundamental concepts of Ayurveda that are necessary to understand the whole text.
 It is very important for a physician to have the full knowledge of materials used in formulating ''Ayurvedic'' drugs. For this purpose, the chapter provides a detailed taxonomy of groups of medications (or recipes), including properties and actions of each ingredient within a group. To zero in from the generic to the specific, the entire “universe” of ingredients are classified into three groups: those that are useful for maintaining good health, those that are useful for treating disorders, and finally, those that are harmful to health. The first two categories, i.e., ingredients useful for health and for treating the diseases have been described by further dividing them into various ways with categorization by three general sources viz. animal-based, plant-based, and earth/mineral-based. Plant-based ingredients are further sub-classified according to their parts used viz. fruits, roots, latex and bark, with relevant examples that are further subdivided according to their applicability in therapeutics e.g. useful for ''vamana'' (therapeutic emesis), ''virechana'' (therapeutic purgation) or ''basti'' (therapeutic enema). The specific actions of the individual ingredients of such groups which may not find place in later chapters have been described herein e.g. five types of salts and eight types of urine.
-The chapter suggests that [[Ayurveda]] beginners may take the help of local people or communities living in or around forests and herders in identifying herbs. Quackery or practitioners with little or limited knowledge of plants are strongly denounced. The best physician is the one who has full knowledge of ayurvedic drugs, their pharmacology, mode of administration and their use according to the condition of the patient. Exploitation of a helpless patient by a physician is considered a sin in [[Ayurveda]].
+The chapter suggests that Ayurveda beginners may take the help of local people or communities living in or around forests and herders in identifying herbs. Charak denounces quackery or ayurvedic practitioners with little or limited knowledge of plants and considers that the best physician is the one who has full knowledge of ayurvedic drugs, their pharmacology, mode of administration and their use according to the condition of the patient. Exploitation of a helpless patient by a physician is considered a sin in Ayurveda.
-In summary, this first chapter of [[Ayurveda]] provides, for someone aspiring to become an ''Ayurvedic'' practitioner, a foundational course that teaches not only the basic tenets of [[Ayurveda]], but also the foundational principles and practices for leading a long and healthy life.
+In summary, this first chapter of Ayurveda provides, for someone aspiring to become an ''Ayurvedic'' practitioner, a foundational course that teaches not only the basic tenets of Ayurveda, but also the foundational principles and practices for leading a long and healthy life.
 </div>
 ===Sanskrit text, transliteration and english translation===
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सूत्रस्थानम् - १. दीर्घञ्जीवितीयोऽध्यायः
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 इति ह स्माह भगवानात्रेयः||२||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 Athātō dīrghañjīvitīyamadhyāyamvyākhyāsyāmaḥ||1||
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 iti ha smAha bhagavAnAtreyaH||2||
-</div></div>
 Now (I) shall expound the chapter on longevity. [1]
 Thus said Lord Atreya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atreya]]. [2]
-====Hierarchy of transformation of knowledge of [[Ayurveda]] on earth====
+====Hierarchy of transformation of knowledge in Ayurveda ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 दीर्घं जीवितमन्विच्छन्भरद्वाज उपागमत्|
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 इन्द्रमुग्रतपा बुद्ध्वा शरण्यममरेश्वरम्||३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 dīrghaṁ jīvitamanvicchanbharadvāja upāgamat|
@@ Line 83: / Line 105: @@
 indramugratapA buddhvA sharaNyamamareshvaram||3||
-</div></div>
 Bharadwaja [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharadwaja]], a great ascetic, went to Indra[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indra]], the King of Gods and the saviour, in quest of longevity. [3]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 ब्रह्मणा हि यथाप्रोक्तमायुर्वेदं प्रजापतिः|
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 ऋषिप्रोक्तो भरद्वाजस्तस्माच्छक्रमुपागमत्||५||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 brahmaṇā hi yathāprōktamāyurvēdaṁ prajāpatiḥ|
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 r̥ṣiprōktō bharadvājastasmācchakramupāgamat||5||
-brahmaNA hi yathAproktam[[Ayurveda]]M prajApatiH|
+brahmaNA hi yathAproktamAyurvedaM prajApatiH|
 jagrAha nikhilenAdAvashvinau tu punastataH||4||
@@ Line 111: / Line 131: @@
 RuShiprokto bharadvAjastasmAcchakramupAgamat||5||
-</div></div>
-At first, Prajapati [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajapati]] received [[Ayurveda]] in its entirety as recited by Brahma[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma]], from whom the Ashwins (received), and from Ashwins lord Indra received it fully. That is why Bharadwaja , as beseeched by the sages, came to Indra.[4-5]
+At first, Prajapati [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajapati]] received Ayurveda in its entirety as recited by Brahma[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma]], from whom the Ashwins (received), and from Ashwins lord Indra received it fully. That is why Bharadwaja , as beseeched by the sages, came to Indra.[4-5]
 ====Conference on quest of longevity ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 विघ्नभूता  यदा रोगाः प्रादुर्भूताः शरीरिणाम्|
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 समेताः पुण्यकर्माणः पार्श्वे हिमवतः शुभे||७||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 vighnabhūtā yadā rōgāḥ prādurbhūtāḥ śarīriṇām|
@@ Line 141: / Line 159: @@
 sametAH puNyakarmANaH pArshve himavataH shubhe||7||
-</div></div>
 When diseases started blighting life, creating impediments in penance, abstinence, study, celibacy, religious observance and life span of mankind, the holy sages, out of their compassion for creatures, assembled at an auspicious place near the Himalayas. [6-7]
 ====List of scholars participated in the conference ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 अङ्गिरा जमदग्निश्च वसिष्ठः कश्यपो भृगुः|
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 सुखोपविष्टास्ते तत्र पुण्यां चक्रुः कथामिमाम्|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 aṅgirā jamadagniśca vasiṣṭhaḥ kaśyapō bhr̥guḥ|
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 sukhopaviShTAste tatra puNyAM cakruH kathAmimAm|15|
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-Among them were Angira[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiras_(sage)], Jamadagni [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamadagni], Vashishtha [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasishtha], Kashyapa [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashyapa], Bhrigu [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhrigu], Atreya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atreya], Gautam [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Maharishi], Samkhya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya], Pulastya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulastya], Narada [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narada], Asita [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asita], Agastya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agastya], Vamadeva [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamadeva], Markandeya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markandeya]], Ashvalayana, Parikshi, Bhikshu Atreya, Bharadwaja[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharadwaja], Kapinjala, Vishwamitra[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvamitra]], Ashmarathya, Bhargava[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhargava]], Chyavana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chyavana]], Abhijit Gargya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gargya]], Shandilya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandilya]], Kaundinya (lya), Varkshi, Devala[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devala]], Galava, Sankrutya, Baijavapi, Kushika, Badarayana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badarayana]], Badisha, Sharaloma, Kapya, Katyayana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81ty%C4%81yana]], Kankayana, Kaikasheya, Dhaumya, Maricha, Kashyapa, Sharkaraksha, Hiranyaksha,  Lokaksha, Paingi, Shaunaka[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaunaka]], Shakunteya, Maitreya, and Maimatayani, along with the sages of ''Vaikhanasa''[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaikhanasas]] and ''Valakhilya'' orders and other great sages. They all, sources of spiritual knowledge, (self control) and restraint of mind, illumined with brilliance of penance like fire, having oblations took their seats comfortably and held auspicious deliberations. [11-15]
+Among them were Angira[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiras_(sage)], Jamadagni [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamadagni], Vashishtha [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasishtha], Kashyapa [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashyapa], Bhrigu [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhrigu], Atreya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atreya], [Gautam], Samkhya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya], Pulastya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulastya], Narada [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narada], Asita [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asita], Agastya [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agastya], Vamadeva [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamadeva], Markandeya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markandeya]], Ashvalayana, Parikshi, Bhikshu Atreya, [Bharadwaja], Kapinjala, Vishwamitra[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvamitra]], Ashmarathya, Bhargava[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhargava]], Chyavana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chyavana]], Abhijit Gargya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gargya]], Shandilya[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandilya]], Kaundinya (lya), Varkshi, Devala[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devala]], Galava, Sankrutya, Baijavapi, Kushika, Badarayana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badarayana]], Badisha, Sharaloma, Kapya, Katyayana[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81ty%C4%81yana]], Kankayana, Kaikasheya, Dhaumya, Maricha, Kashyapa, Sharkaraksha, Hiranyaksha,  Lokaksha, Paingi, Shaunaka[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaunaka]], Shakunteya, Maitreya, and Maimatayani, along with the sages of ''Vaikhanasa''[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaikhanasas]] and ''Valakhilya'' orders and other great sages. They all, sources of spiritual knowledge, (self control) and restraint of mind, illumined with brilliance of penance like fire, having oblations took their seats comfortably and held auspicious deliberations. [11-15]
 </div>
 ====Four Objectives of Life====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 धर्मार्थकाममोक्षाणामारोग्यं मूलमुत्तमम्||१५||
@@ Line 256: / Line 270: @@
 स वक्ष्यति शमोपायं यथावदमरप्रभुः|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 dharmārthakāmamōkṣāṇāmārōgyaṁ mūlamuttamam||15||
@@ Line 281: / Line 294: @@
 sa vakShyati shamopAyaM yathAvadamaraprabhuH|18|
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Health is the best source of virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation while diseases are destroyers of this (source), welfare and life itself. Now this (disease) has appeared as a great obstacle for human beings and what could be the means for their amelioration. Saying this they concentrated on (finding the solution). Then in that state of meditation they realised Indra as saviour. That the King of the Gods only be able to tell the correct means of amelioration (of diseases).[15-17]
 </div>
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 कः सहस्राक्षभवनं गच्छेत् प्रष्टुं शचीपतिम्||१८||
@@ Line 308: / Line 318: @@
 पदैरल्पैर्मतिं बुद्ध्वा विपुलां परमर्षये||२३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 kaḥ sahasrākṣabhavanaṁ gacchēt praṣṭuṁ śacīpatim||18||
@@ Line 350: / Line 359: @@
 tadbrUhi me shamopAyaM yathAvadamaraprabho||22||
-tasmai provAca bhagavAn[[Ayurveda]]M shatakratuH|
+tasmai provAca bhagavAnAyurvedaM shatakratuH|
 padairalpairmatiM buddhvA vipulAM paramarShaye||23||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-Who should go to the abode of Indra to inquire about correct means of amelioration of disease? On this, volunteered Bharadwaja, “I may be deputed for this work” and so he was deputed by the sages. Having gone to Indra’s abode, he saw Indra- the slayer of ''Bala'' (a demon), sitting in the midst of the groups of godly sages and glittering like fire. He approached him with felicitating words of praises and blessings and the intelligent one submitted to him the message of the sages humbly and in the best possible way- “Diseases causing fear in all living beings have appeared so, O Lord of the Gods! Tell me the proper measure for (their) amelioration!”. Then Lord Indra, having sensed the wide intelligence of the great sage, delivered to him [[Ayurveda]] in a few words. [18-23]
+Who should go to the abode of Indra to inquire about correct means of amelioration of disease? On this, volunteered Bharadwaja, “I may be deputed for this work” and so he was deputed by the sages. Having gone to Indra’s abode, he saw Indra- the slayer of ''Bala'' (a demon), sitting in the midst of the groups of godly sages and glittering like fire. He approached him with felicitating words of praises and blessings and the intelligent one submitted to him the message of the sages humbly and in the best possible way- “Diseases causing fear in all living beings have appeared so, O Lord of the Gods! Tell me the proper measure for (their) amelioration!”. Then Lord Indra, having sensed the wide intelligence of the great sage, delivered to him Ayurveda in a few words. [18-23]
 </div>
 ====Three principles for knowledge of Health and Disease ====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 हेतुलिङ्गौषधज्ञानं स्वस्थातुरपरायणम्|
 त्रिसूत्रं शाश्वतं पुण्यं बुबुधे यं पितामहः||२४||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 hētuliṅgauṣadhajñānaṁ svasthāturaparāyaṇam|
@@ Line 373: / Line 379: @@
 trisUtraM shAshvataM puNyaM bubudhe yaM pitAmahaH||24||
-</div></div>
-[[Ayurveda]] provides the knowledge of etiology, symptomatology and therapeutics, best ways for both the healthy and the sick this tri-aphorismic, continuing for the time immemorial and virtuous knowledge which was known to Brahma first. [24]
+Ayurveda provides the knowledge of etiology, symptomatology and therapeutics, best ways for both the healthy and the sick this tri-aphorismic, continuing for the time immemorial and virtuous knowledge which was known to Brahma first. [24]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सोऽनन्तपारं त्रिस्कन्धमायुर्वेदं महामतिः|
@@ Line 384: / Line 389: @@
 ऋषिभ्योऽनधिकं तच्च  शशंसानवशेषयन्||२६||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 sō'nantapāraṁ triskandhamāyurvēdaṁ mahāmatiḥ|
@@ Line 394: / Line 398: @@
 r̥ṣibhyō'nadhikaṁ tacca  śaśaṁsānavaśēṣayan||26||
-so~anantapAraM triskandham[[Ayurveda]]M mahAmatiH|
+so~anantapAraM triskandhamAyurvedaM mahAmatiH|
 yathAvadacirAt sarvaM bubudhe tanmanA muniH||25||
@@ Line 401: / Line 405: @@
 RuShibhyo~anadhikaM tacca  shashaMsAnavasheShayan||26||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-He (Bharadwaja), the intelligent and focussed sage, acquired the endless and three-pronged [[Ayurveda]] properly and entirely in a short time. With this, Bharadwaja attained immeasurably blissful long-life. Thereafter, he transmitted that knowledge as it is (neither more or less) to the sages.[25-26]
+He (Bharadwaja), the intelligent and focussed sage, acquired the endless and three-pronged Ayurveda properly and entirely in a short time. With this, Bharadwaja attained immeasurably blissful long-life. Thereafter, he transmitted that knowledge as it is (neither more or less) to the sages.[25-26]
 </div>
-====Six Basic Principles for direct knowledge====
+====Six Basic Principles of Knowledge ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 ऋषयश्च भरद्वाजाज्जगृहुस्तं प्रजाहितम्|
@@ Line 420: / Line 422: @@
 लेभिरे परमं शर्म जीवितं चाप्यनित्वरम्  ||२९||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 r̥ṣayaśca bharadvājājjagr̥hustaṁ prajāhitam|
@@ Line 445: / Line 446: @@
 lebhire paramaM sharma jIvitaM cApyanitvaram  ||29||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 The sages, desirous of long life, also received that benevolent ''veda'' (compendium of knowledge) of enhancing life from Bharadwaja. The great sages further grasped properly the knowledge of ''samanya'' (similarity), ''vishesha'' (dissimilarity), ''guna'' (property), ''dravya'' (substance), ''karma'' (action) and ''samvaya'' (inherence) by which they followed the tenets of the compendium and attained highest well-being and non-perishable life span. [27-29]
 </div>
 ====Six disciples of Punarvasu Atreya====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 अथ मैत्रीपरः पुण्यमायुर्वेदं पुनर्वसुः|
@@ Line 460: / Line 458: @@
 हारीतः क्षारपाणिश्च जगृहुस्तन्मुनेर्वचः||३१||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 atha maitrīparaḥ puṇyamāyurvēdaṁ punarvasuḥ|
@@ Line 470: / Line 467: @@
 hārītaḥ kṣārapāṇiśca jagr̥hustanmunērvacaḥ||31|
-atha maitrIparaH puNyam[[Ayurveda]]M punarvasuH|
+atha maitrIparaH puNyamAyurvedaM punarvasuH|
 shiShyebhyo dattavAn ShaDbhyaH sarvabhUtAnukampayA||30||
@@ Line 477: / Line 474: @@
 hArItaH kShArapANishca jagRuhustanmunervacaH||31||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-Now, Punarvasu (Lord Atreya), the friend of humanity, out of his benevolence, bestowed the virtuous [[Ayurveda]] upon his six disciples. (The disciples) Agnivesha, Bhela, Jatukarna, Parashara, Harita and Ksharapani received the word (of instruction) from the sage (Punarvasu). [30-31]
+Now, Punarvasu (Lord Atreya), the friend of humanity, out of his benevolence, bestowed the virtuous Ayurveda upon his six disciples. (The disciples) Agnivesha, Bhela, Jatukarna, Parashara, Harita and Ksharapani received the word (of instruction) from the sage (Punarvasu). [30-31]
 </div>
 ====Inception of Agnivesha ''Tantra''====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 बुद्धेर्विशेषस्तत्रासीन्नोपदेशान्तरं मुनेः|
@@ Line 520: / Line 515: @@
 भ(भा)वाय भूतसङ्घानां प्रतिष्ठां भुवि लेभिरे||४०||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 buddhērviśēṣastatrāsīnnōpadēśāntaraṁ munēḥ|
@@ Line 593: / Line 587: @@
 bha(bhA)vAya bhUtasa~gghAnAM pratiShThAM bhuvi lebhire||40||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-It was only the extraordinary merit and not the instructions of the sage that made Agnivesha the author of the first compendium. Subsequently, Bhela etc. also authored their own compendiums and all of them, the intelligent ones, presented their work before Atreya. The sages, on hearing the composition of the various branches of [[Ayurveda]], were extremely pleased and approved it unanimously as a well-composed body of work. All praised the sages, the benefactors of all creatures, for their compassion towards fellow beings. These emphatic, wise words of the sages were heard by the deities and gods in heaven, who became extremely pleased. Their collective appreciation, in the form of a unanimous “well done!” resonated throughout the Three Worlds. Pleasant winds began to blow, there was lustre all around, and there were divine showers of ''buddhi''(Intellect), ''siddhi''(success), ''smriti'' (memory), ''medha'' (grasping power of intellect to learn sciences), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama'' (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness) on those sages (Agnivesha, etc). Thus, compendiums approved by the great sages were established on (strong) footing for the welfare of the living. [32-40]
+It was only the extraordinary merit and not the instructions of the sage that made Agnivesha the author of the first compendium. Subsequently, Bhela etc. also authored their own compendiums and all of them, the intelligent ones, presented their work before Atreya. The sages, on hearing the composition of the various branches of Ayurveda, were extremely pleased and approved it unanimously as a well-composed body of work. All praised the sages, the benefactors of all creatures, for their compassion towards fellow beings. These emphatic, wise words of the sages were heard by the deities and gods in heaven, who became extremely pleased. Their collective appreciation, in the form of a unanimous “well done!” resonated throughout the Three Worlds. Pleasant winds began to blow, there was lustre all around, and there were divine showers of ''buddhi''(Intellect), ''siddhi''(success), ''smriti'' (memory), ''medha'' (grasping power of intellect to learn sciences), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama'' (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness) on those sages (Agnivesha, etc). Thus, compendiums approved by the great sages were established on (strong) footing for the welfare of the living. [32-40]
 </div>
-====Definition of [[Ayurveda]]====
+====Definition of Ayurveda====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 हिताहितं सुखं दुःखमायुस्तस्य हिताहितम्|
 मानं च तच्च यत्रोक्तमायुर्वेदः स उच्यते||४१||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 hitāhitaṁ sukhaṁ duḥkhamāyustasya hitāhitam|
@@ Line 612: / Line 603: @@
 hitAhitaM sukhaM duHkhamAyustasya hitAhitam|
-mAnaM ca tacca yatroktam[[Ayurveda]]H sa ucyate||41||
+mAnaM ca tacca yatroktamAyurvedaH sa ucyate||41||
-</div></div>
-[[Ayurveda]] is that which deals with good, bad, blissful and sorrowful life, and with (what is) wholesome and unwholesome for it, longevity, and about what ''Ayu'' (life) is in itself. [41]
+Ayurveda is that which deals with good, bad, blissful and sorrowful life, and with (what is) wholesome and unwholesome for it, longevity, and about what ''Ayu'' (life) is in itself. [41]
 ====Definition of ''Ayu'' (life) and its synonyms ====
-   <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 शरीरेन्द्रियसत्त्वात्मसंयोगो धारि जीवितम्|
 नित्यगश्चानुबन्धश्च पर्यायैरायुरुच्यते||४२||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 śarīrēndriyasattvātmasaṁyōgō dhāri jīvitam|
@@ Line 631: / Line 620: @@
 nityagashcAnubandhashca paryAyairAyurucyate||42||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 ''Ayu'' (life) implies the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul and is known by the synonym ''dhari'' (that which sustains), ''jivita'' (that which is live), ''nityaga'' (that which is in continuum), and ''anubandha'' (that which is interdependent, or a link between past life and the future life). [42]
 </div>
-====Superiority of [[Ayurveda]] (over other ''Vedas'')====
+====Superiority of Ayurveda (over other ''Vedas'')====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 तस्यायुषः पुण्यतमो वेदो वेदविदां मतः|
 वक्ष्यते यन्मनुष्याणां लोकयोरुभयोर्हितम्  ||४३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 tasyāyuṣaḥ puṇyatamō vēdō vēdavidāṁ mataḥ|
@@ Line 650: / Line 636: @@
 vakShyate yanmanuShyANAM lokayorubhayorhitam ||43||
-</div></div>
-''Vedic'' scholars regard [[Ayurveda]] as the most exalted of ''vedas'', and that which is said to be good for both the worlds for the human beings – the present and the after-life. [43]
+''Vedic'' scholars regard Ayurveda as the most exalted of ''vedas'', and that which is said to be good for both the worlds for the human beings – the present and the after-life. [43]
-==== [http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/index.php?title=Samanya_Vishesha_Theory| Principle of Samanya(similarity) and Vishesha(difference)] ====
+====Principle of ''Samanya'' (similarity) and ''Vishesha''(difference) ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सर्वदा  सर्वभावानां सामान्यं वृद्धिकारणम्|
 ह्रासहेतुर्विशेषश्च, प्रवृत्तिरुभयस्य तु||४४||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 sarvadā  sarvabhāvānāṁ sāmānyaṁ vr̥ddhikāraṇam|
@@ Line 669: / Line 652: @@
 hrAsaheturvisheShashca, pravRuttirubhayasya tu||44||
-</div></div>
 The principle ''samanya'' causes increase and the principle ''vishesha'' causes decrease of all the existing elements at all times, both these effects are produced by their application in the body.[44]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सामान्यमेकत्वकरं, विशेषस्तु पृथक्त्वकृत्|
 तुल्यार्थता हि सामान्यं, विशेषस्तु विपर्ययः||४५||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 sāmānyamēkatvakaraṁ, viśēṣastu pr̥thaktvakr̥t|
@@ Line 685: / Line 666: @@
 tulyArthatA hi sAmAnyaM, visheShastu viparyayaH||45||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 ''Samanya'' (is the principle which ) enables to understand similarity (between objects), and ''vishesha'' (is the principle which) enables to understand distinction(between objects). Again similarity proposes similar purpose (or action) while dissimilarity has opposite one.[45]
+'''Contemporary view'''
+It has been referred from Vaisheshika [http://https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisheshika] [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Vaiseshika_Darshana_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)] school of thought. The principle is also translated in various texts as principle of generality and specificity,sameness and antagonism, homologous and heterologous, and similar or dissimilar. The generality (i.e.sameness, homology, similarity) unifies similar substances having similar properties and action, and specificity (i.e. particularity,antagonism, heterology, dissimilarity) denotes dissimilarity of substances. The principle is applicable in every aspect of life including human biology as well as in nature. It is also important in preservation of health and treatment of diseases. The universal significance of principle of Samanya and Vishesha beyond Ayurveda is proved through three case studies viz. Case of family, Case of climate change induced biodiversity depletion and Case of poverty reduction and access to health care by Pandey DN and Pandey NP.<ref> Pandey Deep Narayan , Pandey Neha Prakash. Universal significance of the principle of Samanya and Vishesha beyond Ayurveda.Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine.2018;9(4),308-311. available online from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0975947617305727 </ref>
 </div>
-====The "Tripod" of Living World and the Objective of [[Ayurveda]] ====
+====The "Tripod" of Living World and the Objective of Ayurveda ====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सत्त्वमात्मा शरीरं च त्रयमेतत्त्रिदण्डवत्|
@@ Line 701: / Line 684: @@
 वेदस्यास्य, तदर्थं हि वेदोऽयं सम्प्रकाशितः||४७||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 sattvamātmā śarīraṁ ca trayamētattridaṇḍavat|
@@ Line 718: / Line 700: @@
 vedasyAsya, tadarthaM hi vedo~ayaM samprakAshitaH||47||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-Mind, soul and body- these three are like a tripod. By their conjunction, existence of the living world is sustained. It is the substratum for everything (which presently exists). This conjugation is termed as ''Purusha'' (living being) and ''Chetana'' (sentient). It is the ''adhikarana'' (subject matter) for [[Ayurveda]]. Knowledge of [[Ayurveda]] is promulgated for the sake of this (conjugation) only. [46-47]
+Mind, soul and body- these three are like a tripod. By their conjunction, existence of the living world is sustained. It is the substratum for everything (which presently exists). This conjugation is termed as ''Purusha'' (living being) and ''Chetana'' (sentient). It is the ''adhikarana'' (subject matter) for Ayurveda. Knowledge of Ayurveda is promulgated for the sake of this (conjugation) only. [46-47]
 </div>
 ====Sentient and Insentient ''Dravya'' (elements)====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 खादीन्यात्मा मनः कालो दिशश्च द्रव्यसङ्ग्रहः|
 सेन्द्रियं चेतनं द्रव्यं, निरिन्द्रियमचेतनम्||४८||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 khādīnyātmā manaḥ kālō diśaśca dravyasaṅgrahaḥ|
@@ Line 738: / Line 717: @@
 sendriyaM cetanaM dravyaM, nirindriyamacetanam||48||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 ''Panchamahabhuta'' (the five fundamental elements, ''akasha, vayu, tejas, ap'' and ''prithvi'', or ether, air, fire, water, and earth respectively), soul, mind, time and ''dik'' (orientation in space) are collectively called ''dravyas'' (elements). ''Dravya'', when is supplemented with sense organs, form the sentient being, while without them would be insentient. [48]
 </div>
-====''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''Karma'' (action)====
+====''Guna'' (basic properties/ qualities) and ''Karma'' (actions)====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सार्था गुर्वादयो बुद्धिः प्रयत्नान्ताः परादयः|
 गुणाः प्रोक्ताः . प्रयत्नादि कर्म चेष्टितमुच्यते||४९||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 sārthā gurvādayō buddhiḥ prayatnāntāḥ parādayaḥ|
@@ Line 757: / Line 733: @@
 guNAH proktAH  prayatnAdi karma ceShTitamucyate||49||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-Sense objects (shabda(sound), sparsha(touch), rupa(sight), rasa(taste), gandha(smell)), properties beginning with ''guru'' (twenty properties like ''guru, laghu'', etc), ''buddhi'' (intelligence) and ending with ''prayatna'' (effort), properties beginning with ''para'' are called ''gunas''. The movement initiated by ''prayatna'' (effort) (an attribute of ''Atma'') is called ''karma'' (action).[49]
+Sense objects (''shabda, sparsha, rupa, rasa, gandha'' (sound, touch, sight, taste and smell respectively), properties beginning with ''guru'' (twenty properties like ''guru, laghu'', etc), ''buddhi'' (intelligence) and ending with ''prayatna'' (effort),properties beginning with ''para'' are called ''gunas''. The movement initiated by (the attribute of ''Atma'') ''prayatna'' (effort) is called ''karma'' (action).[49]
 </div>
+====Inseparable Concomitance of Element and Properties ====
-====Inseparable Concomitance of dravya(elementary substance) and guna (properties) ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 समवायोऽपृथग्भावो भूम्यादीनां गुणैर्मतः|
 स नित्यो यत्र हि द्रव्यं न तत्रानियतो गुणः||५०||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 samavāyō'pr̥thagbhāvō bhūmyādīnāṁ guṇairmataḥ|
@@ Line 777: / Line 749: @@
 sa nityo yatra hi dravyaM na tatrAniyato guNaH||50||
-</div></div>
-''Samavaya'' (inseparable concomitance) is the inseparable relationship of ''dravya''(elementary substance) with their ''gunas'' (properties). This is eternal because whenever a ''dravya'' exists,''Gunas'' are never absent. [50]
+''Samavaya'' (inseparable concomitance) is the inseparable relationship of ''dravya'' with their ''gunas'' (properties). This is eternal because whenever a ''dravya'' exists, it is not devoid of ''gunas''. [50]
-====Definition of ''Dravya'' (elementary substance)====
+====Definition of ''Dravya'' ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 यत्राश्रिताः कर्मगुणाः कारणं समवायि यत्|
 तद्द्रव्यं
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 yatrāśritāḥ karmaguṇāḥ kāraṇaṁ samavāyi yat|
@@ Line 796: / Line 765: @@
 taddravyaM ...|51|
-</div></div>
-''Dravya'' (elementary substance) is the substratum for ''karma'' (action) and ''guna'' (properties). It is the ''samavayi karana'' (intrinsic or material cause of its effect). [51]
+''Dravya'' (element including drugs) is the substratum for ''karma'' (actions) and ''guna'' (properties) and that which is the ''samavayi'' ''karana'' (intrinsic or material cause of its effect). [51]
 ====Definition of ''Guna''====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 समवायी तु निश्चेष्टः कारणं गुणः||५१||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 samavāyī tu niścēṣṭaḥ kāraṇaṁ guṇaḥ||51||
 samavAyI tu nishceShTaH kAraNaM guNaH||51||
-</div></div>
-''Guna'' (property) is ''samavayi karana'' (inseparable concomitance) and inactive cause (of effect). [51]
+''Guna'' (property) is related with ''samavaya'' (inseperable concomitance to ''dravya''), is devoid of action and is (''asamavayi''), i.e., non-inherent cause of its effect). [51]
 ====''Karma'' (action) ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 संयोगे च विभागे च कारणं द्रव्यमाश्रितम्|
 कर्तव्यस्य क्रिया कर्म कर्म नान्यदपेक्षते||५२||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 saṁyōgē ca vibhāgē ca kāraṇaṁ dravyamāśritam|
@@ Line 828: / Line 791: @@
 kartavyasya kriyA karma karma nAnyadapekShate||52||
-</div></div>
 The causative factor in conjunction and disjunction is located in ''dravya'' and performance of the activities to be done (as intended by the doer) is ''karma'' (action). ''Karma'' does not depend on any other factor (to produce the activities). [52]
 ====The Objective of this Compendium ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 इत्युक्तं कारणं कार्यं धातुसाम्यमिहोच्यते|
 धातुसाम्यक्रिया चोक्ता तन्त्रस्यास्य प्रयोजनम्||५३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ityuktaṁ kāraṇaṁ   kāryaṁ dhātusāmyamihōcyatē|
@@ Line 847: / Line 807: @@
 dhAtusAmyakriyA coktA tantrasyAsya prayojanam||53||
-</div></div>
 Thus has been described the cause. Now the effect ''dhatusamya'' is discussed here because the objective of this compendium is achievement of ''dhatusamya'' (equilibrium of sustaining and nourishing factors i.e. body constituents). [53]
 ====Three Types of Causes of Diseases ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 कालबुद्धीन्द्रियार्थानां योगो मिथ्या न चाति च|
 द्वयाश्रयाणां व्याधीनां त्रिविधो हेतुसङ्ग्रहः||५४||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 kālabuddhīndriyārthānāṁ yōgō mithyā na cāti ca|
@@ Line 866: / Line 823: @@
 dvayAshrayANAM vyAdhInAM trividho hetusa~ggrahaH||54||
-</div></div>
 Erroneous use, avoidance and excessive use of time factor, intellect and sense objects is the threefold cause of both psychic and somatic disorders. [54]
 ====Two Sites of Pleasure and Disease ====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 शरीरं सत्त्वसञ्ज्ञं च व्याधीनामाश्रयो मतः|
 तथा सुखानां, योगस्तु सुखानां कारणं समः||५५||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 śarīraṁ sattvasañjñaṁ ca vyādhīnāmāśrayō mataḥ|
@@ Line 885: / Line 839: @@
 tathA sukhAnAM, yogastu sukhAnAM kAraNaM samaH||55||
-</div></div>
 Both body and mind are the locations of disorders as well as pleasures. The balanced use (of the factors mentioned in previous verse) is the cause of pleasures. [55]
-====The Soul ====
+====The Nature of Soul ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 निर्विकारः परस्त्वात्मा सत्त्वभूतगुणेन्द्रियैः|
 चैतन्ये कारणं नित्यो द्रष्टा पश्यति हि क्रियाः||५६||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 nirvikāraḥ parastvātmā sattvabhūtaguṇēndriyaiḥ|
@@ Line 904: / Line 855: @@
 caitanye kAraNaM nityo draShTA pashyati hi kriyAH||56||
-</div></div>
-The soul is unchangeable and superior to all. It is the cause of consciousness when in conjunction with mind, properties, ''bhutas''(fundamental elements) and sense organs.It is eternal and the seer who witnesses all actions. [56]
+The soul is unchangeable and ''para'' (superior to anything), is the cause of consciousness when in conjunction with mind, properties of ''bhutas'' and sense organs, is eternal and is the seer who witnesses all actions. [56]
-====Three [[Sharira]] [[Dosha]] and two [[Manas]] [[Dosha]] ====
+====Three ''Sharira Dosha'' and two ''Manas Dosha'' ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 वायुः पित्तं कफश्चोक्तः शारीरो दोषसङ्ग्रहः|
 मानसः पुनरुद्दिष्टो रजश्च तम एव च||५७||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 vāyuḥ pittaṁ kaphaścōktaḥ śārīrō dōṣasaṅgrahaḥ|
@@ Line 923: / Line 871: @@
 mAnasaH punaruddiShTo rajashca tama eva ca||57||
-</div></div>
-[[Vayu]], [[pitta]] and [[kapha]] are described as bodily [[dosha]]; [[rajas]] and [[tamas]] are mentioned as the mental ones. [57]
+''Vayu, pitta'' and ''kapha'' are described as bodily ''doshas'', ''rajas'' and ''tamas'' are mentioned as the mental ones. [57]
-=====Management of [[dosha]] =====
+====Treatment of these ''doshas'' ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 प्रशाम्यत्यौषधैः पूर्वो दैवयुक्तिव्यपाश्रयैः|
 मानसो ज्ञानविज्ञानधैर्यस्मृतिसमाधिभिः||५८||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 praśāmyatyauṣadhaiḥ pūrvō daivayuktivyapāśrayaiḥ|
@@ Line 942: / Line 887: @@
 mAnaso j~jAnavij~jAnadhairyasmRutisamAdhibhiH||58||
-</div></div>
-The former ones ([[sharira]] [[dosha]]) are pacified by remedial measures of divine([[daiva-vyapashraya]]) and rational qualities[[Talk:Apamarga Tanduliya Adhyaya#'''Yukti Pramana and Yuktivyapashraya Chikitsa(Rational therapeutics)'''|(yuktivyapashraya)]] while the latter ones ([[manas]] [[dosha]]) can be treated with [[jnana]](spiritual knowledge) and [[vijnana]](scientific knowledge), [[dhairya]](temperance), [[smruti(memory)]] and samadhi(concentration). [58]
+The former ones (''sharira dosha'') are pacified by remedial measures of divine and rational qualities while the latter ones (''manas dosha'') can be treated with general and specific knowledge, temperance, memory and concentration. [58]
-=====Properties and pacification of [[dosha]]=====
+====Properties of ''doshas''====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 रूक्षः शीतो लघुः सूक्ष्मश्चलोऽथ विशदः खरः|
@@ Line 960: / Line 903: @@
 श्लेष्मणः प्रशमं यान्ति विपरीतगुणैर्गुणाः||६१||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 rūkṣaḥ śītō laghuḥ sūkṣmaścalō'tha viśadaḥ kharaḥ|
@@ Line 985: / Line 927: @@
 shleShmaNaH prashamaM yAnti viparItaguNairguNAH||61||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 ''Vayu'' is dry, cold, light, subtle, mobile, non-slimy and rough in its characteristics and can be pacified by drugs that have opposite properties (i.e., creamy or oily, heavy and thick in their property). ''Pitta'' is mildly unctuous, hot, sharp, viscous, sour, mobile and pungent, and can readily be pacified by drugs and food articles having opposite properties. ''Kapha'' is heavy and dense, cold, soft, unctuous, sweet, immobile and slimy, and can be subsided by drugs and food articles possessing opposite properties. [59-61]
 </div>
-==== General principles of management of disorders and prognosis ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 विपरीतगुणैर्देशमात्राकालोपपादितैः|
@@ Line 1,000: / Line 937: @@
 भूयश्चातो यथाद्रव्यं गुणकर्माणि वक्ष्यते||६३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 viparītaguṇairdēśamātrākālōpapāditaiḥ|
@@ Line 1,017: / Line 953: @@
 bhUyashcAto yathAdravyaM guNakarmANi vakShyate||63||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-Curable disorders can be treated using drugs having opposite properties and administered with due consideration to place or location, dosage and time. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised (in [[Ayurveda]]).
+Curable disorders can be treated using drugs having opposite properties and administered with due consideration to place or location, dosage and time. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised (in Ayurveda).
 Now described, in detail, are the properties and actions of drugs [62-63]
 </div>
 ====''Rasa'' (taste sensations) ====
-   <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 रसनार्थो रसस्तस्य द्रव्यमापः क्षितिस्तथा|
 निर्वृत्तौ च विशेषे च प्रत्ययाः खादयस्त्रयः||६४||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 rasanārthō rasastasya dravyamāpaḥ kṣitistathā|
@@ Line 1,038: / Line 971: @@
 nirvRuttau ca visheShe ca pratyayAH khAdayastrayaH||64||
-</div></div>
 ''Rasa'' is the object of ''rasana'' (gustatory sense organ). Its material substances are ''apa'' and ''prithvi''. In manifestation and differentiation of ''rasa'', the other three ''akasha'' etc. (''akasha, vayu'' and ''tejas'') are causative factors. [64]
-===== Group of six ''rasa''(taste sensations) =====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 स्वादुरम्लोऽथ लवणः कटुकस्तिक्त एव च|
 कषायश्चेति षट्कोऽयं रसानां सङ्ग्रहः स्मृतः||६५||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 svāduramlō'tha lavaṇaḥ kaṭukastikta ēva ca|
@@ Line 1,057: / Line 985: @@
 kaShAyashceti ShaTko~ayaM rasAnAM sa~ggrahaH smRutaH||65||
-</div></div>
 Sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent – this is the group of six ''rasa'' (tastes). [65]
-===== Effect of ''rasa'' on state of ''dosha'' =====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 स्वाद्वम्ललवणा वायुं, कषायस्वादुतिक्तकाः|
@@ Line 1,071: / Line 995: @@
 कटुतिक्तकषायाश्च कोपयन्ति समीरणम्  ||१||)
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 svādvamlalavaṇā vāyuṁ, kaṣāyasvādutiktakāḥ|
@@ Line 1,088: / Line 1,011: @@
 kaTutiktakaShAyAshca kopayanti samIraNam  ||1||)
-</div></div>
 (Among these tastes) sweet, sour and salty overcome ''vayu'', astringent, sweet and bitter subdue ''pitta'' and astringent, pungent and bitter win over ''kapha''. [66]
-==== Classification of ''dravya'' based on action ====
+====Classification of ''dravya'' based on ''prabhava'' ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 किञ्चिद्दोषप्रशमनं किञ्चिद्धातुप्रदूषणम्|
 स्वस्थवृत्तौ मतं किञ्चित्त्रिविधं द्रव्यमुच्यते||६७||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 kiñciddōṣapraśamanaṁ kiñciddhātupradūṣaṇam|
@@ Line 1,107: / Line 1,027: @@
 svasthavRuttau mataM ki~jcittrividhaM dravyamucyate||67||
-</div></div>
-Elementary substances are of three types (based on action)- (1) some pacifiers of ''doshas'', (2) some vitiate ''dhatus'' and (3) some are taken as (responsible for) maintaining normal health. [67]
+Drug is of three types- (based on ''prabhava'') (1) some (drugs) are pacifiers of ''doshas'', (2) some vitiate ''dhatus'' and (3) some are taken as (responsible for) maintaining normal health. [67]
-==== Classification of dravya (elementary substance) according to Source ====
+====Classification of Matters according to Source ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 तत् पुनस्त्रिविधं प्रोक्तं जङ्गमौद्भिदपार्थिवम्  |
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
-tat punastrividhaṁ prōktaṁ jaṅgamaudbhidapārthivam  |
-tat punastrividhaM proktaM ja~ggamaudbhidapArthivam |
-</div></div>
-According to the source of origin, the drugs are of three types viz. animal origin, plant origin and earth origin.(68)
-===== Animal origin substances =====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 मधूनि गोरसाः पित्तं वसा मज्जाऽसृगामिषम्||६८||
@@ Line 1,134: / Line 1,040: @@
 जङ्गमेभ्यः प्रयुज्यन्ते केशा लोमानि रोचनाः||६९||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
+tat punastrividhaṁ prōktaṁ jaṅgamaudbhidapārthivam  |
 madhūni gōrasāḥ pittaṁ vasā majjā'sr̥gāmiṣam||68||
@@ Line 1,142: / Line 1,048: @@
 jaṅgamēbhyaḥ prayujyantē kēśā lōmāni rōcanāḥ||69||
+tat punastrividhaM proktaM ja~ggamaudbhidapArthivam |
 madhUni gorasAH pittaM vasA majjA~asRugAmiSham||68||
@@ Line 1,148: / Line 1,055: @@
 ja~ggamebhyaH prayujyante keshA lomAni rocanAH||69||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
+According to the source of origin, the drugs are of three types viz. animal origin, plant origin and earth origin.
-Honey, milk, bile, animal-fat, bone-marrow, blood, flesh, excreta, urine, skin, semen, bone, ligaments, horns, nails, hoof, hair, down (fine soft dense hair) and inspissated bile - are substances obtained from animals [68-69].
+Animal origin drugs - Honey, milk, bile, animal-fat, bone-marrow, blood, flesh, excrements, urine, skin, semen, bone, ligaments, horns, nails, hoof, hair, down (fine soft dense hair) and inspissated bile - are substances obtained from animals [68-69].
 </div>
+====Earth origin drugs ====
-===== Earth origin substances =====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सुवर्णं समलाः पञ्च लोहाः ससिकताः सुधा|
 मनःशिलाले मणयो लवणं गैरिकाञ्जने||७०||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
+भौममौषधमुद्दिष्टमौद्भिदं तु चतुर्विधम्|
+वनस्पतिस्तथा वीरुद्वानस्पत्यस्तथौषधिः||७१||
 suvarṇaṁ samalāḥ pañca lōhāḥ sasikatāḥ sudhā|
 manaḥśilālē maṇayō lavaṇaṁ gairikāñjanē||70||
+bhaumamauṣadhamuddiṣṭamaudbhidaṁ tu caturvidham|
+vanaspatistathā vīrudvānaspatyastathauṣadhiḥ||71||
 suvarNaM samalAH pa~jca lohAH sasikatAH sudhA|
 manaHshilAle maNayo lavaNaM gairikA~jjane||70||
-</div></div>
-Substances obtained from earth are gold, five metals (silver, copper, tin, lead and iron) along with their byproducts such as ''shilajatu'' (bitumen), sand, lime, red and yellow arsenic (''manahshila'' and ''hartala''), gems, salt, red ochre and antimony.[70
-===== Plant origin substances =====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
-भौममौषधमुद्दिष्टमौद्भिदं तु चतुर्विधम्|
-वनस्पतिस्तथा वीरुद्वानस्पत्यस्तथौषधिः||७१||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
-bhaumamauṣadhamuddiṣṭamaudbhidaṁ tu caturvidham|
-vanaspatistathā vīrudvānaspatyastathauṣadhiḥ||71||
 bhaumamauShadhamuddiShTamaudbhidaM tu caturvidham|
 vanaspatistathA vIrudvAnaspatyastathauShadhiH||71||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
+Drugs obtained from earth are gold, five metals (silver, copper, tin, lead and iron) along with their byproducts such as ''shilajatu'' (bitumen), sand, lime, red and yellow arsenic (''manahshila'' and ''hartala''), gems, salt, red ochre and antimony.
-Plant origin drugs: Plant origin drugs are of four types viz. direct fruiters, creepers, flower based fruiters and herbs [71].
+Plant origin drugs: Plant origin drugs are of four types viz. direct fruiters, creepers, flower based fruiters and herbs [70-71].
 </div>
-====== Four types of substances from plant origin ======
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 फलैर्वनस्पतिः पुष्पैर्वानस्पत्यः फलैरपि|
 ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ताः प्रतानैर्वीरुधः स्मृताः||७२||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 phalairvanaspatiḥ puṣpairvānaspatyaḥ phalairapi|
@@ Line 1,213: / Line 1,099: @@
 oShadhyaH phalapAkAntAH pratAnairvIrudhaH smRutAH||72||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 The plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as ''vanaspati'' (Gymno-spermia). The plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as ''vanaspatya'' (angio-spermia). The plants which die out after flowering are known as ''aushadha'' (annuals). The plants which creep or twine are known as ''virudha'' (creepers) [72]
 </div>
+====Plant’s parts used as drugs ====
-===== Plant’s parts used as drugs =====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 मूलत्वक्सारनिर्यासनाल(ड)स्वरसपल्लवाः|
@@ Line 1,227: / Line 1,109: @@
 पत्राणि शुङ्गाः कन्दाश्च प्ररोहाश्चौद्भिदो गणः|७४|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 mūlatvaksāraniryāsanāla(ḍa)svarasapallavāḥ|
@@ Line 1,240: / Line 1,121: @@
 patrANi shu~ggAH kandAshca prarohAshcaudbhido gaNaH|74|
-</div></div>
 The roots bark, pith, exudation, stalk, juice, sprouts, alkalis, latex, fruits, flowers, ash, oil, thorns, leaves, buds, bulbs and off-shoots of the plants are used as drugs [73-73.5]
-==== Groups of substances for medicinal use ====
+====Miscellaneous classifications of the drugs ====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 मूलिन्यः षोडशैकोना फलिन्यो विंशतिः स्मृताः||७४||
@@ Line 1,256: / Line 1,135: @@
 य एतान् वेत्ति संयोक्तुं विकारेषु स वेदवित्||७६||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 mūlinyaḥ ṣōḍaśaikōnā phalinyō viṁśatiḥ smr̥tāḥ||74||
@@ Line 1,277: / Line 1,155: @@
 ya etAn vetti saMyoktuM vikAreShu sa vedavit||76||
-</div></div>
   <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Per the school of Punarvasu (Lord Atreya), roots of 16 plants and fruits of 19 plants are used as drugs. Similarly, principal unctuous (''mahasneha'') substances are of four types and main salts are of five types. Urine and milk for medicinal purposes are obtained from 8 different animals and six plants are used for purification (''shodhana''). The physician who knows how to use all these materials for curing the disease is the expert physician [74-76].
 </div>
-=====Sixteen roots used for ''shodhana'' (purification) =====
+====Sixteen roots used for ''shodhana'' (purification):====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 हस्तिदन्ती हैमवती श्यामा त्रिवृदधोगुडा|
@@ Line 1,299: / Line 1,175: @@
 इत्युक्ता नामकर्मभ्यां मूलिन्यः...|८०|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 hastidantī haimavatī śyāmā trivr̥dadhōguḍā|
@@ Line 1,332: / Line 1,207: @@
 ityuktA nAmakarmabhyAM mUlinyaH...|80|
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 The roots of 16 plants whose roots are used for shodhana are ''Hastidanti, Haimavati, Shyama, Trivrit, Adhoguda, Saptala, Shvetanama, Pratyakshreni, Gavakshi, Jyotishmati,  Bimbi,  Shanapushpi, Vishanika, Ajagandha, Dravanti'' and ''Kshirini''.
 Out of these ''Shankhapushpi, Bimbi and Haimavati'' are used for ''vamana'' (emesis therapy). ''Shveta'' and ''Jyotishmati'' are used for ''nasya karma'' (errhine). The remaining 11 drugs are used for ''virechana karma'' (purgation therapy) [77-80].
 </div>
-===== Fruits used for ''shodhana'' (purification therapy) =====
+====Fruits used for ''shodhana'' (purification therapy) ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 ...फलिनीः शृणु||८०||
@@ Line 1,365: / Line 1,238: @@
 नामकर्मभिरुक्तानि फलान्येकोनविंशतिः|८६|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ...phalinīḥ śr̥ṇu||80||
@@ Line 1,418: / Line 1,290: @@
 nAmakarmabhiruktAni phalAnyekonaviMshatiH|86|
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Fruits of the following 19 plants are used as drugs- ''Shankhini, Vidanga, Trapusha, Madanaphala, Dhamargava, Ikshvaku, Jimutam, Kritavedhana'', two types of ''Klitakam'' occurring in marshy and dry land (''anupam, sthalaja''), ''Prakirya, Udakirya, Pratyakpushpa, Abhaya, Antahkotarapushpi, Hastiparni, Sharada, Kampillaka, Aragvadhaphala'' and ''Kutaja''.
@@ Line 1,424: / Line 1,295: @@
 ''Pratyakpushpa'' is used for ''nasya karma''. The remaining 10 drugs are useful for ''virechana karma''. Thus the names and main actions of 19 fruiters have been described [81-85.5].
 </div>
-=====Four major unctuous substances=====
+====Four major unctuous substances====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सर्पिस्तैलं वसा मज्जा स्नेहो दिष्टश्चतुर्विधः  ||८६||
 पानाभ्यञ्जनबस्त्यर्थं नस्यार्थं चैव योगतः|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 sarpistailaṁ vasā majjā snēhō diṣṭaścaturvidhaḥ  ||86||
@@ Line 1,439: / Line 1,308: @@
 pAnAbhya~jjanabastyarthaM nasyArthaM caiva yogataH|
-</div></div>
 Ghee, oil, animal-fat and bone-marrow are the four major unctuous substances. These are used after preparing with other drugs for potion, inunction, medicated enema and errhine (''nasya'') therapy [86].
-======General actions of unctuous substances ======
+====General actions of unctuous substances ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 स्नेहना जीवना वर्ण्या बलोपचयवर्धनाः||८७||
 स्नेहा ह्येते च विहिता वातपित्तकफापहाः|८८|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 snēhanā jīvanā varṇyā balōpacayavardhanāḥ||87||
@@ Line 1,458: / Line 1,324: @@
 snehA hyete ca vihitA vAtapittakaphApahAH|88|
-</div></div>
 The unctuous substances produce oiliness, vitality, complexion, strength and growth in the body and provide relief in ''vata'', ''pitta'' and ''kapha'' [87-87.5]
-=====Five salts =====
+====Five salts ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सौवर्चलं सैन्धवं च विडमौद्भिदमेव च||८८||
@@ Line 1,470: / Line 1,334: @@
 स्निग्धान्युष्णानि तीक्ष्णानि दीपनीयतमानि  च||८९||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 sauvarcalaṁ saindhavaṁ ca viḍamaudbhidamēva ca||88||
@@ Line 1,483: / Line 1,346: @@
 snigdhAnyuShNAni tIkShNAni dIpanIyatamAni  ca||89||
-</div></div>
 Five principal salts are black/sochal salt (''sauvarchala''), rock salt (''saindhava''), ammonium chloride (''vid''), earth/efflorescence salt (''audbhid'') and sea salt (''samudra''). They are unctuous, hot, sharp/acute and foremost in digestive-stimulants [88-89].
-======Utility of salts ======
+====Utility of salts ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 आलेपनार्थे युज्यन्ते स्नेहस्वेदविधौ तथा|
@@ Line 1,501: / Line 1,362: @@
 उक्तानि लवणा(नि)...|९२|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ālēpanārthē yujyantē snēhasvēdavidhau tathā|
@@ Line 1,526: / Line 1,386: @@
 uktAni lavaNA(ni)...|92|
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Salts are used for external applications (''alepa''), oleation, sudation, in emesis and purgation preparations, in evacuation and unctuous types of enemata preparations, inunction and errhine therapy; in surgical operations, suppository, collyrium, friction massage and as a food. It is indicated in indigestion, constipation, disorders of ''vata'', ''gulma'', colic and abdominal diseases. Thus, salts have been described [90-91.5]
 </div>
-=====Eight important origins of urine =====
+====Eight important varieties of urine ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 ... न्यू(ऊ)र्ध्वं मूत्राण्यष्टौ निबोध मे||९२||
@@ Line 1,540: / Line 1,398: @@
 हस्तिमूत्रमथोष्ट्रस्य हयस्य च खरस्य च|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ... nyū(ū)rdhvaṁ mūtrāṇyaṣṭau nibōdha mē||92||
@@ Line 1,557: / Line 1,414: @@
 hastimUtramathoShTrasya hayasya ca kharasya ca|
-</div></div>
 Eight principal urines described by the Atreya School for medicinal use are urine of ewe, she-goat, cow, she-buffalo, elephant, she-camel, mare and she-donkey [92-93]
-====== General properties and external uses of urine ======
+====General properties and external uses of urine ====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 उष्णं तीक्ष्णमथोऽरूक्षं  कटुकं लवणान्वितम्||९४||
 मूत्रमुत्सादने युक्तं युक्तमालेपनेषु च|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 uṣṇaṁ tīkṣṇamathō'rūkṣaṁ  kaṭukaṁ lavaṇānvitam||94||
@@ Line 1,576: / Line 1,430: @@
 mUtramutsAdane yuktaM yuktamAlepaneShu ca|
-</div></div>
 Generally, urines have hot, acute and non-dry actions, are pungent and salty in taste and are used for frictional massage and external applications (''alepa'') [94].
-====== Internal uses of urine ======
+====Internal uses of urine ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 युक्तमास्थापने मूत्रं युक्तं चापि विरेचने||९५||
@@ Line 1,590: / Line 1,442: @@
 तद्युक्तमुपनाहेषु परिषेके तथैव च|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 yuktamāsthāpanē mūtraṁ yuktaṁ cāpi virēcanē||95||
@@ Line 1,607: / Line 1,458: @@
 tadyuktamupanAheShu pariSheke tathaiva ca|
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Urines are also used in the preparations of evacuator enema, purgatives, poultice (''upanaha'') and affusion (''parisheka'') as well as in antidote (''agada'') preparations. It is indicated in afflictions such as retention of feces, urine and flatulence (''anaha''), generalized enlargement of abdomen (''udara roga''), ''gulma'', piles, dermatosis (''kushtha'') and leukoderma [95-96.5]
 </div>
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 दीपनीयं विषघ्नं च क्रिमिघ्नं चोपदिश्यते||९७||
 पाण्डुरोगोपसृष्टानामुत्तमं शर्म  चोच्यते|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 dīpanīyaṁ viṣaghnaṁ ca krimighnaṁ cōpadiśyatē||97||
@@ Line 1,625: / Line 1,472: @@
 pANDurogopasRuShTAnAmuttamaM sharma cocyate|
-</div></div>
 Urines have been prescribed as digestive stimulants, antidotes to poison and as vermicides. They are excellent for the treatment of persons suffering from ''pandu'' (anemia) [97.5]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 श्लेष्माणं शमयेत् पीतं मारुतं चानुलोमयेत्||९८||
@@ Line 1,635: / Line 1,480: @@
 सामान्येन मयोक्तस्तु पृथक्त्वेन प्रवक्ष्यते||९९||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ślēṣmāṇaṁ śamayēt pītaṁ mārutaṁ cānulōmayēt||98||
@@ Line 1,648: / Line 1,492: @@
 sAmAnyena mayoktastu pRuthaktvena pravakShyate||99||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Oral intake of urine pacifies ''kapha'', regulates peristaltic movement of ''vata'' and evacuates morbid ''pitta'' through lower channels. General properties and actions of urine thus have been described. Now they will be described individually [98-99]
 </div>
-====== Properties of urine of ewe and goat ======
+====Properties of urine of ewe and goat ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 अविमूत्रं सतिक्तं स्यात् स्निग्धं पित्ताविरोधि च|
 आजं कषायमधुरं पथ्यं दोषान्निहन्ति च||१००||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 avimūtraṁ satiktaṁ syāt snigdhaṁ pittāvirōdhi ca|
@@ Line 1,667: / Line 1,508: @@
 AjaM kaShAyamadhuraM pathyaM doShAnnihanti ca||100||
-</div></div>
 The urine of ewe is slightly bitter, unctuous and not antagonistic to ''pitta''. The urine of she-goat is astringent, sweet and wholesome and dispels the morbid ''dosha'' [100]
-======Properties of cow’s urine ======
+====Properties of cow’s urine ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 गव्यं समधुरं किञ्चिद्दोषघ्नं क्रिमिकुष्ठनुत्|
 कण्डूं च शमयेत् पीतं सम्यग्दोषोदरे हितम्||१०१||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 gavyaṁ samadhuraṁ kiñciddōṣaghnaṁ krimikuṣṭhanut|
@@ Line 1,686: / Line 1,524: @@
 kaNDUM ca shamayet pItaM samyagdoShodare hitam||101||
-</div></div>
 The urine of cow is slightly sweet, alleviates discordance of dosha and cures worms and chronic dermatoses (''kushtha'') and relieves pruritis. Its proper intake cures disorders of abdomen [101]
-======Properties of urine of buffalo and elephant ======
+====Properties of urine of buffalo and elephant ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 अर्शःशोफोदरघ्नं तु सक्षारं माहिषं सरम्|
@@ Line 1,698: / Line 1,534: @@
 प्रशस्तं बद्धविण्मूत्रविषश्लेष्मामयार्शसाम्|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 arśaḥśōphōdaraghnaṁ tu sakṣāraṁ māhiṣaṁ saram|
@@ Line 1,711: / Line 1,546: @@
 prashastaM baddhaviNmUtraviShashleShmAmayArshasAm|
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 The urine of buffalo provides relief in piles, edema and disorders leading to general enlargement of abdomen (''udara roga'').  The urine of she-elephant is salty and provides relief in worms and dermatoses (''kushtha'').  It is also useful in the treatment of retention of feces and urine, poisoning, ''kapha'' disorders and piles [102.5]
 </div>
-======Properties of urine of she-camel ======
+====Properties of urine of she-camel ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 सतिक्तं श्वासकासघ्नमर्शोघ्नं चौष्ट्रमुच्यते||१०३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 satiktaṁ śvāsakāsaghnamarśōghnaṁ cauṣṭramucyatē||103||
 satiktaM shvAsakAsaghnamarshoghnaM cauShTramucyate||103||
-</div></div>
 The urine of she-camel is slightly bitter and provides relief in breathlessness, cough and piles [103].
-====== Properties of urine of mare and she-donkey ======
+====Properties of urine of mare and she-donkey ====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 वाजिनां तिक्तकटुकं कुष्ठव्रणविषापहम्|
@@ Line 1,736: / Line 1,566: @@
 इतीहोक्तानि मूत्राणि यथासामर्थ्ययोगतः|१०५|
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 vājināṁ tiktakaṭukaṁ kuṣṭhavraṇaviṣāpaham|
@@ Line 1,749: / Line 1,578: @@
 itIhoktAni mUtrANi yathAsAmarthyayogataH|105|
-</div></div>
   <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Urine of mare is bitter and pungent in taste and provides relief in dermatoses (''kushtha''), wounds and poisoning.
@@ Line 1,755: / Line 1,583: @@
 Thus described were the medicinal properties and action of eight types of urine. [104].
 </div>
+====Eight important varieties of milk ====
-=====Eight important origins of milk =====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 अतः  क्षीराणि वक्ष्यन्ते कर्म चैषां गुणाश्च ये||१०५||
@@ Line 1,764: / Line 1,590: @@
 उष्ट्रीणामथ नागीनां वडवायाः स्त्रियास्तथा||१०६||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ataḥ  kṣīrāṇi vakṣyantē karma caiṣāṁ guṇāśca yē||105||
@@ Line 1,777: / Line 1,602: @@
 uShTrINAmatha nAgInAM vaDavAyAH striyAstathA||106||
-  </div></div>
 Henceforth properties and actions of (eight types) milk are being described.
 The milks of sheep, goat, cow, buffalo, camel, elephant, mare and woman are used for medicinal purposes. [105-106]
-====== General properties and actions of milk ======
+====General properties and actions of milk====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 प्रायशो मधुरं स्निग्धं शीतं स्तन्यं पयो मतम्|
@@ Line 1,797: / Line 1,620: @@
 तृष्णाघ्नं दीपनीयं च श्रेष्ठं क्षीणक्षतेषु च||१०९||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 prāyaśō madhuraṁ snigdhaṁ śītaṁ stanyaṁ payō matam|
@@ Line 1,822: / Line 1,644: @@
 tRuShNAghnaM dIpanIyaM ca shreShThaM kShINakShateShu ca||109||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Generally, milk is sweet, unctuous, cooling, galactagogue, pleasing, aphrodisiac, brain tonic (''medhya'', which increases intelligence), strengthening, exhilarating, vitalizing, refreshing; curative to dyspnea, cough, bleeding, synthesizer in injuries/fracture; wholesome to all living creatures, pacifies and evacuates the ''dosha'', quenches the thirst, stimulates the digestion and very useful in emaciation due to lung ulcer [107-109].
 </div>
+====General indications of milk ====
-====== General indications of milk ======
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 पाण्डुरोगेऽम्लपित्ते च शोषे गुल्मे तथोदरे|
@@ Line 1,837: / Line 1,656: @@
 पुरीषे ग्रथिते पथ्यं वातपित्तविकारिणाम्||१११||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 pāṇḍurōgē'mlapittē ca śōṣē gulmē tathōdarē|
@@ Line 1,854: / Line 1,672: @@
 purIShe grathite pathyaM vAtapittavikAriNAm||111||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 Milk is indicated in ''pandu''(anemia), ''amlapitta'' (acid dyspepsia), consumption,  ''gulma''  and ''udara roga'' (generalized enlargement of abdomen), diarrhea, fever, burning sensation, particularly in edema, vaginal and seminal disorders, oliguria and hard stools. It is wholesome to disorders of ''vata'' and ''pitta'' [110-111].
 </div>
+====Pharmaceutical uses of milk ====
-====== Pharmaceutical uses of milk ======
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 नस्यालेपावगाहेषु वमनास्थापनेषु  च|
 विरेचने स्नेहने च पयः सर्वत्र युज्यते||११२||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 nasyālēpāvagāhēṣu vamanāsthāpanēṣu  ca|
@@ Line 1,874: / Line 1,688: @@
 virecane snehane ca payaH sarvatra yujyate||112||
-</div></div>
 Milk is used in many types of preparation including for nasal medication, external applications, tub baths, emesis, enema, purgation and unctuous therapies [112]
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 यथाक्रमं क्षीरगुणानेकैकस्य पृथक् पृथक्|
 अन्नपानादिकेऽध्याये भूयो वक्ष्याम्यशेषतः||११३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 yathākramaṁ kṣīraguṇānēkaikasya pr̥thak pr̥thak|
@@ Line 1,891: / Line 1,702: @@
 annapAnAdike~adhyAye bhUyo vakShyAmyasheShataH||113||
-</div></div>
 Further exhaustive description of uses and action of the individual milk will be explained in due order in the chapter entitled [[Annapanavidhi Adhyaya]] [113].
-===== Plants with latex =====
+====Plants with latex ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 अथापरे त्रयो वृक्षाः पृथग्ये फलमूलिभिः|
@@ Line 1,905: / Line 1,714: @@
 क्षीरमर्कस्य विज्ञेयं वमने सविरेचने||११५||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 athāparē trayō vr̥kṣāḥ pr̥thagyē phalamūlibhiḥ|
@@ Line 1,922: / Line 1,730: @@
 kShIramarkasya vij~jeyaM vamane savirecane||115||
-</div></div>
 Now other than fruiters and rooter, three plants whose latex is used will be described. These three plants are ''Snuhi'', ''Arka'' and ''Ashmantaka''.
-''Ashmantaka'' is used for therapeutic emesis ; latex of ''Snuhi'' is used for purgation and latex of ''Arka'' is used both for emesis and purgation therapies. [114-115]
+''Ashmantaka'' is used for therapeutic emesis ; latex of ''Snuhi'' is used for purgation and latex of ''Arka'' is used both for emesis and purgation therapies [114-115]
-===== Three bark-plants used as drug and their therapeutic uses =====
+====Three bark-plants used as drug ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 इमांस्त्रीनपरान् वृक्षानाहुर्येषां हितास्त्वचः|
 पूतीकः कृष्णगन्धा च तिल्वकश्च तथा तरुः||११६||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 imāṁstrīnaparān vr̥kṣānāhuryēṣāṁ hitāstvacaḥ|
@@ Line 1,942: / Line 1,747: @@
 pUtIkaH kRuShNagandhA ca tilvakashca tathA taruH||116||
-</div></div>
 There are three more trees whose bark is used as drug.
-These are ''Putika'', ''Krishnagandha'' and ''Tilvaka''. [116]
+These are ''Putika'', ''Krishnagandha'' and ''Tilvaka'' [116]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 विरेचने प्रयोक्तव्यः पूतीकस्तिल्वकस्तथा|
@@ Line 1,955: / Line 1,758: @@
 षड्वृक्षाञ्छोधनानेतानपि विद्याद्विचक्षणः||११८||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 virēcanē prayōktavyaḥ pūtīkastilvakastathā|
@@ Line 1,972: / Line 1,774: @@
 ShaDvRukShA~jchodhanAnetAnapi vidyAdvicakShaNaH||118||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 The barks of ''Putika'' and ''Tilvaka'' are used for purgation therapy. Indications of bark of ''Krishnagandha'' are erysipelas, inflammation, piles, ringworm, abscess, nodules, dermatosis and gangrene (''alaji''). The wise physician should also acquire the knowledge of the above mentioned six plants (three with latex and three with bark) of their pacification actions [117-118].
   </div>
+====Conclusion of descriptions of the plants ====
-===== Summary of descriptions of the plants =====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 इत्युक्ताः फलमूलिन्यः स्नेहाश्च लवणानि च|
 मूत्रं क्षीराणि वृक्षाश्च षड्  ये दिष्टपयस्त्वचः||११९||
-  <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ityuktāḥ phalamūlinyaḥ snēhāśca lavaṇāni ca|
@@ Line 1,992: / Line 1,790: @@
 mUtraM kShIrANi vRukShAshca ShaD  ye diShTapayastvacaH||119||
-</div></div>
-Thus have been described the fruiters, rooters, unctuous substances, salts, urines, milks and the six plants whose latex and barks are used. [119]
+Thus have been described the fruiters, rooters, unctuous substances, salts, urines, milks and the six plants whose latex and barks are used [119]
-==== Importance and methods of identification of plants ====
+====Help for identification of plants ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 ओषधीर्नामरूपाभ्यां जानते ह्यजपा वने|
 अविपाश्चैव गोपाश्च ये चान्ये वनवासिनः||१२०||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ōṣadhīrnāmarūpābhyāṁ jānatē hyajapā vanē|
@@ Line 2,011: / Line 1,806: @@
 avipAshcaiva gopAshca ye cAnye vanavAsinaH||120||
-</div></div>
 Goat-herders, sheep-herders,  cowherders and forest-dwellers are acquainted with names and forms/identification of various medicinal herbs and the plants [120]
-===== Limitation of knowledge of names of medicines only =====
+====Limitation of knowledge of names of plants only ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 न नामज्ञानमात्रेण रूपज्ञानेन वा पुनः|
 ओषधीनां परां प्राप्तिं कश्चिद्वेदितुमर्हति||१२१||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 na nāmajñānamātrēṇa rūpajñānēna vā punaḥ|
@@ Line 2,030: / Line 1,822: @@
 oShadhInAM parAM prAptiM kashcidveditumarhati||121||
-</div></div>
-Just by knowing the names and forms of herbs, though, no one can claim to have a perfect knowledge of therapeutic uses of medicinal substances. [121]
+Just by knowing the names and forms of herbs, though, no one can claim to have a perfect knowledge of medicinal uses of the plants [121]
-===== Importance of complete knowledge of therapeutic actions of plants =====
+====Importance of complete knowledge of therapeutic actions of plants ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 योगवित्त्वप्यरूपज्ञस्तासां  तत्त्वविदुच्यते|
 किं पुनर्यो विजानीयादोषधीः सर्वथा भिषक्||१२२||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 yōgavittvapyarūpajñastāsāṁ  tattvaviducyatē|
@@ Line 2,049: / Line 1,838: @@
 kiM punaryo vijAnIyAdoShadhIH sarvathA bhiShak||122||
-</div></div>
-If one who knows the uses and actions of the herbs, though not acquainted with their forms, is called a pharmacologist, then what need be said of the physician who knows the herbs from all aspect. [122]
+If one who knows the uses and actions of the herbs, though not acquainted with their forms, is called a pharmacologist, then what need be said of the physician who knows the herbs from all aspects![122]
 ====Best physician ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 योगमासां तु यो विद्याद्देशकालोपपादितम्|
 पुरुषं पुरुषं वीक्ष्य स ज्ञेयो  भिषगुत्तमः||१२३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 yōgamāsāṁ tu yō vidyāddēśakālōpapāditam|
@@ Line 2,068: / Line 1,854: @@
 puruShaM puruShaM vIkShya sa j~jeyo  bhiShaguttamaH||123||
-</div></div>
 He is the best of physicians who knows the science of administration of drugs with due reference to country and season and who uses it only after examining each and every patient individually [123]
 ====Denouncing of quacks ====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 यथा विषं यथा शस्त्रं यथाऽग्निरशनिर्यथा|
 तथौषधमविज्ञातं विज्ञातममृतं यथा||१२४||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 yathā viṣaṁ yathā śastraṁ yathā'gniraśaniryathā|
@@ Line 2,087: / Line 1,870: @@
 tathauShadhamavij~jAtaM vij~jAtamamRutaM yathA||124||
-</div></div>
 A drug that is understood perfectly can be used as an ambrosia. But the use of a drug that is not understood perfectly may work as poison, weapon, fire or a "bolt of thunder" [124]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 औषधं ह्यनभिज्ञातं नामरूपगुणैस्त्रिभिः|
 विज्ञातं चापि दुर्युक्तमनर्थायोपपद्यते||१२५||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 auṣadhaṁ hyanabhijñātaṁ nāmarūpaguṇaistribhiḥ|
@@ Line 2,104: / Line 1,884: @@
 vij~jAtaM cApi duryuktamanarthAyopapadyate||125||
-</div></div>
 A drug whose name, form and properties are not known or a drug ,though known but not administered properly, spells disaster [125]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 योगादपि विषं तीक्ष्णमुत्तमं भेषजं भवेत्|
 भेषजं चापि दुर्युक्तं तीक्ष्णं सम्पद्यते विषम्||१२६||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 yōgādapi viṣaṁ tīkṣṇamuttamaṁ bhēṣajaṁ bhavēt|
@@ Line 2,121: / Line 1,898: @@
 bheShajaM cApi duryuktaM tIkShNaM sampadyate viSham||126||
-</div></div>
 Even a virulent poison can be converted into an excellent medicine when prepared and administered using the right methods. Conversely, even a good medicine may act as a potent poison if improperly administered [126].
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 तस्मान्न भिषजा युक्तं युक्तिबाह्येन भेषजम्|
 धीमता किञ्चिदादेयं जीवितारोग्यकाङ्क्षिणा||१२७||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 tasmānna bhiṣajā yuktaṁ yuktibāhyēna bhēṣajam|
@@ Line 2,138: / Line 1,912: @@
 dhImatA ki~jcidAdeyaM jIvitArogyakA~gkShiNA||127||
-  </div></div>
 Therefore an intelligent man who desires health and long life should not take any medicine prescribed by a physician who is a complete stranger to the application of medicines [127]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 कुर्यान्निपतितो मूर्ध्नि सशेषं वासवाशनिः|
 सशेषमातुरं कुर्यान्नत्वज्ञमतमौषधम्||१२८||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 kuryānnipatitō mūrdhni saśēṣaṁ vāsavāśaniḥ|
@@ Line 2,155: / Line 1,926: @@
 sasheShamAturaM kuryAnnatvaj~jamatamauShadham||128||
-</div></div>
 One may survive a bolt of lightning on one’s head, but one cannot expect to escape the fatal effects of medicines prescribed by an ignorant physician [128]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 दुःखिताय शयानाय श्रद्दधानाय रोगिणे|
@@ Line 2,167: / Line 1,936: @@
 नरो नरकपाती स्यात्तस्य सम्भाषणादपि||१३०||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 duḥkhitāya śayānāya śraddadhānāya rōgiṇē|
@@ Line 2,184: / Line 1,952: @@
 naro narakapAtI syAttasya sambhAShaNAdapi||130||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 The vainglorious and charlatan person , the quack, if administers medicines to the ailing bed-ridden patient who has implicit faith in him, such a quack is considered one who totally evades his duty, sinful, wicked and death incarnate. Even just by conversing with such quack may lead a person to hell [130]
 </div>
 ==== Sinful deeds about exploitation of patient ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 वरमाशीविषविषं क्वथितं ताम्रमेव वा|
@@ Line 2,198: / Line 1,964: @@
 गृहीतमन्नं पानं वा वित्तं वा रोगपीडितात्||१३२||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 varamāśīviṣaviṣaṁ kvathitaṁ tāmramēva vā|
@@ Line 2,215: / Line 1,980: @@
 gRuhItamannaM pAnaM vA vittaM vA rogapIDitAt||132||
-</div></div>
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
 It is better for a person who has put on the garb of the physician to take the venom of the cobra or melted copper or to swallow heated iron balls than to extort food, drink or money from a man who is afflicted with disease and has sought his aid [131-132]
@@ Line 2,221: / Line 1,985: @@
 ====Quest to become good physician ====
-  <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 भिषग्बुभूषुर्मतिमानतः स्वगुणसम्पदि|
 परं प्रयत्नमातिष्ठेत् प्राणदः स्याद्यथा नृणाम्||१३३||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 bhiṣagbubhūṣurmatimānataḥ svaguṇasampadi|
 paraṁ prayatnamātiṣṭhēt prāṇadaḥ syādyathā nr̥ṇām||133||
 bhiShagbubhUShurmatimAnataH svaguNasampadi|
 paraM prayatnamAtiShThet prANadaH syAdyathA nRuNAm||133||
-</div></div>
+<div style="text-align:justify;">
-<div style="text-align:justify;">
+Therefore, the intelligent person, who is aspiring to be a good physician, should always persevere to his best of abilities in acquiring the best qualities of a physician so that he may be a real giver of life to the people [133]
-Therefore, the intelligent person, who is aspiring to be a good physician, should always persevere to his best of abilities in acquiring the best qualities of a physician so that he may be a real giver of life to the people [133]
+</div>
-</div>
+====Qualities of best drug and physician ====
-====Qualities of best drug and physician ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
+तदेव युक्तं भैषज्यं यदारोग्याय कल्पते|
-तदेव युक्तं भैषज्यं यदारोग्याय कल्पते|
+स चैव भिषजां श्रेष्ठो रोगेभ्यो यः प्रमोचयेत्||१३४||
-स चैव भिषजां श्रेष्ठो रोगेभ्यो यः प्रमोचयेत्||१३४||
+tadēva yuktaṁ bhaiṣajyaṁ yadārōgyāya kalpatē|
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
+sa caiva bhiṣajāṁ śrēṣṭhō rōgēbhyō yaḥ pramōcayēt||134||
-tadēva yuktaṁ bhaiṣajyaṁ yadārōgyāya kalpatē|
+tadeva yuktaM bhaiShajyaM yadArogyAya kalpate|
-sa caiva bhiṣajāṁ śrēṣṭhō rōgēbhyō yaḥ pramōcayēt||134||
+sa caiva bhiShajAM shreShTho rogebhyo yaH pramocayet||134||
+The right medicine is that which restores the health and best physician is that who relieves patients from their diseases [134]
+सम्यक्प्रयोगं सर्वेषां सिद्धिराख्याति कर्मणाम्|
+सिद्धिराख्याति सर्वैश्च गुणैर्युक्तं भिषक्तमम्||१३५||
-tadeva yuktaM bhaiShajyaM yadArogyAya kalpate|
-sa caiva bhiShajAM shreShTho rogebhyo yaH pramocayet||134||
- </div></div>
-The right medicine is that which restores the health and best physician is that who relieves patients from their diseases [134]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
-सम्यक्प्रयोगं सर्वेषां सिद्धिराख्याति कर्मणाम्|
-सिद्धिराख्याति सर्वैश्च गुणैर्युक्तं भिषक्तमम्||१३५||
- <div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 samyakprayōgaṁ sarvēṣāṁ siddhirākhyāti karmaṇām|
@@ Line 2,272: / Line 2,028: @@
 siddhirAkhyAti sarvaishca guNairyuktaM bhiShaktamam||135||
-</div></div>
 Correct application of all therapeutic measures is reflected in success in treatment (''siddhi'') and the success in turn reflects that physician is endowed with all the qualities of a best physician [135]
@@ Line 2,278: / Line 2,033: @@
 ====Summary ====
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 तत्र श्लोकाः-
@@ Line 2,300: / Line 2,054: @@
 सर्वमेतत् समाख्यातं पूर्वाध्याये महर्षिणा||१४०||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 tatra ślōkāḥ-
@@ Line 2,328: / Line 2,081: @@
 AyurvedAgamo heturAgamasya pravartanam|
-sUtraNasyAbhyanuj~jAnam[[Ayurveda]]sya nirNayaH||136||
+sUtraNasyAbhyanuj~jAnamAyurvedasya nirNayaH||136||
-sampUrNaM kAraNaM kAryam[[Ayurveda]]prayojanam|
+sampUrNaM kAraNaM kAryamAyurvedaprayojanam|
 hetavashcaiva doShAshca bheShajaM sa~ggraheNa ca||137||
@@ Line 2,345: / Line 2,098: @@
 sarvametat samAkhyAtaM pUrvAdhyAye maharShiNA||140||
-</div></div>
 Here are the re-capitulatory verses
-The origin of [[Ayurveda]], circumstances of its advent onto the world of the living, its promulgation, the approbation of the aphoristic compilation, the definition of [[Ayurveda]] (are described) [136]
+The origin of Ayurveda, circumstances of its advent onto the world of the living, its promulgation, the approbation of the aphoristic compilation, the definition of Ayurveda (are described) [136]
-A complete definition of the causes, the effects and objects of [[Ayurveda]]; and in brief causes and treatment of the ''dosha'' (have been described) [137]
+A complete definition of the causes, the effects and objects of Ayurveda; and in brief causes and treatment of the ''dosha'' (have been described) [137]
 Causes, ''dravya'', the tastes, three-fold classification of the drugs (or the''dravya''), rooters, fruiters, unctuous substances and salts (are described in brief) [138]
@@ Line 2,358: / Line 2,110: @@
 The denunciation of quacks, points indicating the qualities of best physician; all these have been described in brief in the first chapter by the great sages [140]
-<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
 इत्यग्निवेशकृते तन्त्रे चरकप्रतिसंस्कृते सूत्रस्थाने दीर्घञ्जीवितीयो नाम प्रथमोऽध्यायः||१||
-<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
 ityagnivēśakr̥tē tantrē carakapratisaṁskr̥tē sūtrasthānē dīrghañjīvitīyō nāma prathamō'dhyāyaḥ||1||
-</div></div>
 Thus the first chapter entitled ‘The Quest for Longevity’ of the section of [[Sutra Sthana]] (general principles) of the treatise compiled by Agnivesha and revised by Charak is completed (1).
-===''Tattva Vimarsha'' / Fundamental Principles ===
+===''Tattva Vimarsha''/Fundamental Inferences ===
   <div style="text-align:justify;">
 * The quest for longevity is the basic purpose of any medical science and the desire to live long is the important desire of every mankind. [verse 3]
-* An iterative interchange between patients, practitioners, researchers and community (''Loka'') members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the ''Shastra'', or the Scientific body of knowledge, to help find the most effective formulations to alleviate diseases.
+* An iterative interchange between patients, practitioners, researchers and community (''Loka'') members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the ''Shastra'', or the Scientific body of knowledge, to help find the most effective formulations to allieviate diseases.
 * The patient seeks treatment when the disease becomes obstacle in daily routine of one’s life. [verse 6]
 * Four objectives of life: Health is the root to attain all four basic objectives of life i.e. ''Dharma'' (guidelines for life or virtues), ''Artha'' (Wealth). ''Kama'' (desires or enjoyments) and ''Moksha'' (emancipation). The diseases are destroyer of all this as well as harmony within an environment. [verse 15]
-* Three principles for knowledge of health and disease:  The best ways of knowledge about health and disease are knowing ''hetu''(causes), ''linga'' (symptomatology) and ''aushadha'' (therapeutics). [Verse 24]
+* Three principles for knowledge of health and diseased:  The best ways of knowledge about health and disease are knowing ''hetu''(causes), ''linga'' (symptomatology) and ''aushadha'' (therapeutics). [Verse 24]
-* Six categories of everything : ''Samanya'' (principle of similarity), ''vishesha'' (principle of distinction), ''guna'' (property), ''dravya'' (~substance), ''karma'' (action) and ''samavaya'' (inherence/ inseparable concomitance) are six basic  categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable life span can be attained. [verse 27-29]
+* Six categories of everything : ''Samanya'' (principle of similarity), ''vishesha'' (principle of distinction), ''guna'' (property), ''dravya'' (~substance), ''karma'' (action) and ''samavaya'' (inherence/ inseparable concomittance) are six basic  categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable life span can be attained. [verse 27-29]
-* Two ways for attainment of knowledge: Knowledge can be attained through ''nayana chakshu'' (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and ''dhyana chakshu'' (through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]
+* Two ways for attainment of knowledge: Ayurveda knowledge can be attained through ''dnyana chakshu'' (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and ''dhyana chakshu'' (through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]
-* Eight divine powers after knowledge:  After acquiring knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], one gets empowered with ''buddhi'' (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), ''siddhi'' (success), ''smriti''  (memory), ''medha''  (grasping power of intellect), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama''  (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness). [verse 39]
+* Eight divine powers after knowledge:  After acquiring knowledge of Ayurveda, one gets empowered with ''buddhi'' (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), ''siddhi'' (success), ''smriti''  (memory), ''medha''  (grasping power of intellect), ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''kirti'' (fame), ''kshama''  (forbearance) and ''daya'' (kindness). [verse 39]
-* Definition of [[Ayurveda]]: [[Ayurveda]] deals with all aspects of life (good, bad, happy and unhappy life) and its extent.
+* Definition of Ayurveda: Ayurveda deals with all aspects of life (good, bad, happy and unhappy life) and its extent.
-* Definition of ''Ayu'' (life) and its synonyms: ''Ayu''  means the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul. It shall be sustainable and in continuum. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like ''sukshma sharira'' (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of ''Ayu'' denotes life process with the ''atman'', also referred to as ''jiva-atman'' (or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The ''atma'' (or ''atman'', as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of  ''paramatma'' i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.
+* Definition of ''Ayu'' (life) and its synonyms: ''Ayu''  means the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul. It shall be sustainable, in continuum and live at all times. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like ''sukshma sharira'' (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of ''Ayu'' denotes life process with the ''atman'', also referred to as ''jiva-atman'' (or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The ''atma'' (or ''atman'', as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of  ''paramatma'' i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.
-* Superiority of [[Ayurveda]] over other ''vedas'':  [[Ayurveda]] is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present life as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43].
+* Superiority of Ayurveda over other ''vedas'':  Ayurveda is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present life as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43].
 * Theory of ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'': ''Samanya'' is the principle which enables to understand similarity between objects, while ''vishesha'' is the principle which enables to understand distinction between objects. [Verse 44-45]
-* The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being and the objective of [[Ayurveda]]: Mind, soul and body constitute foundation of the living being i.e. sentient ''purusha'' (living person). The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to understand and explain all aspects of ''purusha''. [Verse 46-47]
+* The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being and the objective of Ayurveda: Mind, soul and body constitute foundation of the living being i.e. sentient ''purusha'' (living person). The objective of Ayurveda is to understand and explain all aspects of ''purusha''. [Verse 46-47]
-* Basic elements:''Panchamahabhuta'' (or the Five Elements), such as ''akasha'' (space),''vayu'' (air), ''tejas'' (fire), ''apa'' (water), and ''prithvi'' (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements (soul, mind, time and space) are collectively considered basic elements of this universe.  All the entities in the universe can be categorized into ''chetana'' (sentient/animate) and ''achetana'' (insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul), but the presence or absence of sense organs.  ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions):  Sense objects (''shabda'" (sound), ''sparsha''(touch), ''rupa'' (appearance), ''rasa''(taste) and ''gandha''(smell)) are five ''vaisheshika'' (specific) properties.
+* Basic elements:''Panchamahabhuta'' (or the Five Elements), such as ''akasha'' (space),''vayu'' (air), ''tejas'' (fire), ''apa'' (water), and ''prithvi'' (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements (soul, mind, time and space) are collectively considered basic elements (of this universe).  All the entities in the universe can be categorized into ''chetana'' (sentient/animate) and ''achetana'' (insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul), but the presence or absence of sense organs.  ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions):  Sense objects (''shabda'" (sound), ''sparsha''(touch), ''rupa'' (appearance), ''rasa''(taste) and ''gandha''(smell)) are five ''vaisheshika'' (specific) properties.
 *''Guru'' (heavy), ''laghu'' (light), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''ushna'' (hot), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''ruksha'' (dry), ''manda'' (mild/slow acting), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''sthira'' (stable/immobile), ''sara'' (unstable), ''mridu'' (soft), ''kathina'' (hard), ''vishada'' (non-slimy), ''pichchila'' (sticky), ''shlakshna'' (smooth), ''khara'' (rough), ''sthoola'' (gross), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''sandra'' (solid), ''drava'' (liquid/fluid) are twenty ''samanya'' (general) properties.
 *''Buddhi'' (knowledge) with ''smriti'' (memory), ''chetana'' (consciousness),  ''dhriti'' (restraint), ''ahankara'' (ego), ''ichcha'' (inclination/desire), ''dwesha'' (aversion), ''sukha'' (comfort] , ''dukkha'' (discomfort), ''prayatna'' (effort) are properties of the ''atman'' or the Self.
@@ Line 2,389: / Line 2,138: @@
 * The movement initiated by ''prayatna'' (effort) is called ''karma'' (action). [verse 49]
 * ''Samavaya''(Inseparability) : ''Samavaya''  is the inherent property of blending of ''dravya'' (i.e., substances/elements e.g., prithvi or earth etc.) with their ''gunas'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions).This is universal because no ''dravya'' (substance) is devoid of ''property''. Every substance has some or the other property. [verse 50]
-* ''Dravya'': ''Dravya'' is that in which the ''karma'' (action) and ''guna'' (properties) reside inherently and which is the ''samavayi'' ''karana'' (material cause) for any ''karya''(effect).  [verse 51] Any entity which fulfills this criteria can be called as a ''dravya''. Matter, energy and force all have certain ''guna'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions) and they are ''samavayi karana'' for the effects, so all such entities can be called as ''dravya''.
+* ''Dravya'': ''Dravya'' is that in which the ''karma'' (action) and ''guna'' (properties) reside inherently and which is the ''samavayi'' ''karana'' (material cause) for any ''karya''(effect).  [verse 51] Any entity which fulfils this criteria can be called as a ''dravya''. Matter, energy and force all have certain ''guna'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions) and they are ''samavayi karana'' for the effects, so all such entities can be called as ''dravya''.
 * ''Guna'': ''Guna'' (properties) [verse 51] are inherent in a ''dravya''. ''Karma'' (action) is also inherent in ''dravya''. But unlike ''karma'', ''gunas'' cannot initiate any movement on their own. The movements have to be initiated by ''karma''.
 * ''Karma''(action/effect): Action is inherent in the very phenomenon of combination/conjunction and division/disjunction , and thus, inherent in ''dravya'' as well. The act of combining or dividing is ''karma'' (action). ''Karma'' does not require anything else. [verse 52]
-* ''Karana'' (cause) and a definition of health: The factor responsible for action is ''karana'' (or cause), which results in a desired ''karya'' (effect or outcome), which is the end product of ''karma''. In this verse, ''samanya, vishesha'' etc. are termed as ''karana'' (cause), and the ''karya'' (desired effect) is ''dhatusamya'' i.e. homeostasis. ''Dhatusamya'' leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]
+* ''Karana'' (cause) and a definition of health: The factor responsible for action is ''karana'' (or cause), which results in a desired ''karya'' (effect or outcome), which is the end product of ''karma''. In this verse, ''samanya, vishesha'' etc. are termed as ''karana'' (cause), and the ''karya'' (desired effect) is ''dhatusamya'' i.e. homostasis. ''Dhatusamya'' leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]
-* ''Karya'' [Results to be achieved]: The objective of [[Ayurveda]] is to maintain and restore equilibrium among ''dhatus'' (the factors responsible for various physiological actions). [verse 53]
+* ''Karya'' [Results to be achieved]: The objective of Ayurveda is to maintain and restore equilibrium among ''dhatus'' (the factors responsible for various physiological actions). [verse 53]
 * Three causes of all diseases: Misuse/abuse, avoidance and excessive use of time, intellect and sense objects constitute the threefold cause of both psychic and somatic disorders. [verse 54]
 * Locations for disease and pleasures: Body and mind are the locations of disorders as well as pleasures. The balanced use of time, intellect and sense objects is the cause of pleasures. Equilibrium leads to pleasures. [ verse 55]
 * The soul: The soul is unchangeable, is ''para'' (superior), is the cause of consciousness (in conjunction with the mind, properties of bhutas and sense organs), is eternal and is the seer who witnesses all the actions. The soul doesn’t get affected by any abnormalities. [verse 56]
 *''Dosha'': ''Vata, pitta'' and ''kapha'' are ''doshas'' associated with the body. ''Rajas'' and ''tamas'' are mental ''doshas''. These ''doshas'' can vitiate the body and mind respectively and are responsible for diseases. [verse 57]
-** Treatment of these ''doshas'': Body-related ''dosha'' are pacified by the remedial measures of divine and rational therapeutics. The treatment for vitiated mental ''dosha'' includes knowledge of self, specific scientific knowledge, encouragement of mind, remembrance/memory of experiences and meditation/concentration. These are the principles of psychotherapy in [[Ayurveda]]. [verse 58]
+** Treatment of these ''doshas'': Body-related ''dosha'' are pacified by the remedial measures of divine and rational therapeutics. The treatment for vitiated mental ''dosha'' includes knowledge of self, specific scientific knowledge, encouragement of mind, remembrance/memory of experiences and meditation/concentration. These are the principles of psychotherapy in Ayurveda. [verse 58]
 ** Properties of vata dosha & treatment: ''Vata dosha'' is ''ruksha''(dry), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''laghu'' (light), ''sukshma'' (subtle), ''chala'' (mobile), ''vishada'' (non-slimy) and ''khara'' (rough) in properties and is pacified by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 59]
-** Properties of ''pitta dosha'' and treatment: ''Pitta dosha'' is ''sneha'' (or, with unctuousness), ''ushna'' (hot), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''drava'' (liquid), ''amla'' (sour), ''sara'' (unstable) and ''katu'' (pungent) and is pacified immediately by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 60]
+** Properties of ''pitta dosha'' and treatment: ''Pitta dosha'' is ''sasneha'' (or, with unctuousness), ''ushna'' (hot), ''tikshna'' (strong/fast acting), ''drava'' (liquid), ''amla'' (sour), ''sara'' (unstable) and ''katu'' (pungent) and is pacified immediately by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 60]
 ** Properties of ''kapha dosha'' and treatment: The properties of ''kapha'' are ''guru'' (heavy), ''sheeta'' (cool), ''mrudu'' (soft), ''snigdha'' (unctuous), ''madhura'' (sweet), ''sthira'' (stable/immobile) and ''pichchila'' (slimy). This is subsided by (the drugs and substances having) opposite properties. [verse 61]
 ** Curability and incurability of diseases: Curable disorders are treated by drugs having opposite properties as mentioned above. The drugs should be administered after due considerations of three factors like ''desha, matra'' and ''kala''. ''Desha'' means the place of birth and ''residence'' of a person. ''Matra'' (dose) should be decided as per the strength of patient, stage of disease, severity of disease and ''agni''. In ''kala'', the season of precipitation of disease and time of administration of drug should be considered.  These factors should be considered to achieve maximum efficacy of the treatments. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised. [verse 62]
@@ Line 2,434: / Line 2,183: @@
 * All the material substances are classified into three categories: (1) Pacifiers of ''dosha'', (2) those which vitiate ''dhatu'' and (3) those maintaining health.[Verse 67]
-===''Vidhi Vimarsha'' / Applied Inferences===
+===''Vidhi Vimarsha''/Applied Inferences===
-==== Threefold method of learning [[Ayurveda]] ====
+==== Threefold method of learning Ayurveda ====
-[[Ayurveda]] can be understood completely and effectively by gaining the threefold knowledge of ''hetu'' (cause), ''linga'' (symptoms) and ''aushadha''(remedies). [[Charak Samhita]] explains the causes, symptoms and remedies pertaining to health and diseases, and therefore should be used as the definitive source of knowledge of [[Ayurveda]].
+Ayurveda can be understood completely and effectively by gaining the threefold knowledge of ''hetu'' (cause), ''linga'' (symptoms) and ''aushadha''(remedies). [[Charak Samhita]] explains the causes, symptoms and remedies pertaining to health and diseases, and therefore should be used as the definitive source of knowledge of Ayurveda.
 </div>
 ===== Six categories =====
 <div style="text-align:justify;">
-A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of [[Ayurveda]], when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of [[Ayurveda]] (for maintenance and promotion of health, and for curing diseases) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as ''padartha'' by ''vaisheshika darshana''. But [[Ayurveda]] terms them as ''karana''(cause), with ''dhatusamya''(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. health) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore health. As per ''Sushruta Samhita'' the duty of a ''vaidya''(physician) is to maintain or restore health, can be executed in three ways-
+A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of Ayurveda, when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of Ayurveda (for maintenance and promotion of health, and for curing diseases) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as ''padartha'' by ''vaisheshika darshana''. But Ayurveda terms them as ''karana''(cause), with ''dhatusamya''(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. health) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore health. As per ''Sushruta Samhita'' the duty of a ''vaidya''(physician) is to maintain or restore health, can be executed in three ways-
 #By augmenting the body constituents which are depleted, to normal level.
 #By depleting the body constituents which are abnormally increased, to normal level.
 #By maintaining the body constituents which are proportionate, in their normal proportions.
-For executing all these three duties, the ''vaidya'' (Ayurvedic practitioner or physician) requires ''samanya'' which leads to increase and ''vishesha'', which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. ''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' reside in ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', so a ''vaidya'' needs to study them. Relationship of ''guna'' and ''karma'' with ''dravya'' is ''samavaya''. ''Samavaya'' is responsible for existence of all the three - ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma''. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. [[Ayurveda]] gives more importance to ''gunas'' (properties and also qualities). So ''guna'' is mentioned first. E.g. ''Vacha'' is described as ''ugragandha'' (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, ''vaidya'' may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative.
+For executing all these three duties, the ''vaidya'' (Ayurvedic practitioner or physician) requires ''samanya'' which leads to increase and ''vishesha'', which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. ''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' reside in ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', so a ''vaidya'' needs to study them. Relationship of ''guna'' and ''karma'' with ''dravya'' is ''samavaya''. ''Samavaya'' is responsible for existence of all the three - ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma''. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. Ayurveda gives more importance to ''gunas'' (properties and also qualities). So ''guna'' is mentioned first. E.g. ''Vacha'' is described as ''ugragandha'' (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, ''vaidya'' may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative.
-It may appear that the concepts of ''samanya'' etc. are philosophical. But [[Ayurveda]] applies these concepts in practice.
+It may appear that the concepts of ''samanya'' etc. are philosophical. But Ayurveda applies these concepts in practice.
 Out of these six categories, ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' truly exist. ''Samanya, vishesha'' and ''samavaya'' do not exist in the physical world. They exist in a metaphysical sense.
-==== Definition of [[Ayurveda]] ====
+==== Definition of Ayurveda ====
-Here four types of ''ayu'' are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a ''karmic'' consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 30. [[Ayurveda]] describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. [[Ayurveda]] also describes ''ayu pramana'' (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of [[Sutra Sthana]], guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like ''dashavidha pareeksha'' (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section [[Indriya Sthana]] helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. [[Ayurveda]] also describes ''ayu'' itself i.e. definition and understanding about ''Ayu''.
+Here four types of ''ayu'' are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a ''karmic'' consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 30. Ayurveda describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. Ayurveda also describes ''ayu pramana'' (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of [[Sutra Sthana]], guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like ''dashavidha pareeksha'' (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section [[Indriya Sthana]] helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. Ayurveda also describes ''ayu'' itself i.e. definition and understanding about ''Ayu''.
 ==== Definition of ''Ayu'' and its synonyms ====
-[[Ayurveda]] discusses about ''Ayu'' which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides body it also consists of ''indriya'' (sense organs), ''mana''(mind) and ''atma''(soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, memory etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as ''paramanu'' (cell). The knowledge of ''ayu'' is explained by keeping such a living body in view.
+Ayurveda discusses about ''Ayu'' which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides body it also consists of ''indriya'' (sense organs), ''mana''(mind) and ''atma''(soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, memory etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as ''paramanu'' (cell). The knowledge of ''ayu'' is explained by keeping such a living body in view.
-[[Ayurveda]] accepts separate existence of ''indriya'' (sense organs). ''Indriya'' are made up of the five ''mahabhutas''. Each ''indriya'' is composed of portions of all five ''mahabhutas'', with predominance of one of them. Accepting separate existence of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition as made up of ''mahabhutas'' is a significant concept philosophically, and also having important practical applications. Each ''indriya'' operates with the help of certain organs and structures called as ''adhishthana'' (substratum). E.g. eyes, specially retina, optic nerve and the centre for vision in the brain, all can be termed as ''adhishthana''. There is separate existence of ''indriya'', which is very subtle and therefore invisible. Since all these are made up of ''mahabhutas'', with specific diet and specific medicines they can be treated. This is because food and medicines(drugs) are also made up of ''mahabhutas''. Subtle portion from food nourishes ''indriyas'', and medicines can influence and regularise their functions. One can realise, that even the conditions pertaining to ''adhishthana'' like optic nerve degeneration are very much difficult to treat, so one can imagine about the conditions related to ''indriya''. But with acceptance of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition by ''mahabhutas'' provides scope to treat conditions not only pertaining to ''adhishthana'', but also ''indriya''.
+Ayurveda accepts separate existence of ''indriya'' (sense organs). ''Indriya'' are made up of the five ''mahabhutas''. Each ''indriya'' is composed of portions of all five ''mahabhutas'', with predominance of one of them. Accepting separate existence of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition as made up of ''mahabhutas'' is a significant concept philosophically, and also having important practical applications. Each ''indriya'' operates with the help of certain organs and structures called as ''adhishthana'' (substratum). E.g. eyes, specially retina, optic nerve and the centre for vision in the brain, all can be termed as ''adhishthana''. There is separate existence of ''indriya'', which is very subtle and therefore invisible. Since all these are made up of ''mahabhutas'', with specific diet and specific medicines they can be treated. This is because food and medicines(drugs) are also made up of ''mahabhutas''. Subtle portion from food nourishes ''indriyas'', and medicines can influence and regularise their functions. One can realise, that even the conditions pertaining to ''adhishthana'' like optic nerve degeneration are very much difficult to treat, so one can imagine about the conditions related to ''indriya''. But with acceptance of ''indriya'' and understanding their composition by ''mahabhutas'' provides scope to treat conditions not only pertaining to ''adhishthana'', but also ''indriya''.
-Similarly accepting separate existence of ''mana'' (mind) is also significant. Because not only by correcting the higher functions of brain which are attributed to mind, but by directly acting on mind, [[Ayurveda]] provides better scope for it’s treatment. Accepting existence of atma (soul) is again very much significant. ''Buddhi'' (intelligence), ''smriti'' (memory) etc. are attributes of ''atma''. By accepting separate existence of ''atma'', they can be better understood and treated to improve.
+Similarly accepting separate existence of ''mana'' (mind) is also significant. Because not only by correcting the higher functions of brain which are attributed to mind, but by directly acting on mind, Ayurveda provides better scope for it’s treatment. Accepting existence of atma (soul) is again very much significant. ''Buddhi'' (intelligence), ''smriti'' (memory) etc. are attributes of ''atma''. By accepting separate existence of ''atma'', they can be better understood and treated to improve.
-''Atma'' along with the subtle ''indriyas'' and ''mana'' when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, ''ayu''(life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilisation of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per [[Ayurveda]], it can be understood that ''atma'' has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and ''atma'' which enters in it with ''indriya'' and ''mana'', continues till death. At the time of death, ''atma'' along with ''indriya'' and ''mana'' leaves the body. When ''atma'' realises that it is distinct from the body, ''indriya'' and ''mana'', it gets ''moksha'' (emancipation).
+''Atma'' along with the subtle ''indriyas'' and ''mana'' when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, ''ayu''(life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilisation of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per Ayurveda, it can be understood that ''atma'' has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and ''atma'' which enters in it with ''indriya'' and ''mana'', continues till death. At the time of death, ''atma'' along with ''indriya'' and ''mana'' leaves the body. When ''atma'' realises that it is distinct from the body, ''indriya'' and ''mana'', it gets ''moksha'' (emancipation).
 ====Synonyms of ''Ayu''(life)====
@@ Line 2,468: / Line 2,217: @@
 ''Ayu'' is described with various synonyms. Each one of them is significant and they provide understanding about different aspects about ''Ayu''. Its synonym, ''dhari'' (the support), indicates that as long as the conjugation of these four factors continues, the living body is protected. Any threat to the existence is counteracted by protective mechanisms like the healing of wounds. As soon as there is a disjunction of these factors, death occurs and the decomposition of body starts. ''Jeevitam'' (animation) suggests that only as long as the conjugation of these factors continues, there is liveliness, responsive and sentient nature. This is lost as soon as there is disjunction. ''Nityaga'' (the flux) suggests that this conjugation of four factors is a dynamic process, a continuum. The living body keeps on undergoing changes, at every moment. ''Anubandha'' (the link) suggests that this conjugation is continued as a link every moment. It also forms a link at its beginning point with the previous life, and at the end point, with the next life.
-====Superiority of [[Ayurveda]] over other ''vedas'':====
+====Superiority of Ayurveda over other ''vedas'':====
-Certain branches of ''veda'' like ''Dhanurveda'' (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like ''upanishada'' and ''aranyaka'' are beneficial for the life after death. But [[Ayurveda]] is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.
+Certain branches of ''veda'' like ''Dhanurveda'' (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like ''upanishada'' and ''aranyaka'' are beneficial for the life after death. But Ayurveda is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.
 ====Theory of ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'':====
-''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' are pertaining to ''dravya'', ''guna'' and ''karma''. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through ''indriya'' (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the ''buddhi'' (intelligence), which is an attribute of the ''atma'' (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as ''jnanotpatti'' (manifestation of knowledge). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is refered in the verse 45 as ''ekatva'' (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called ''samanya'' which helps us to understand similarity (''samanyam ekatvakaram''). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle ''vishesha'' due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (''prithaktvakrita''). This is the brief essence of the principle of ''Samanya-vishesha''. This concept is also found in ''vaisheshika darshana'' (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but [[Ayurveda]] has applied this concept in practice.
+''Samanya'' and ''vishesha'' are pertaining to ''dravya'', ''guna'' and ''karma''. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through ''indriya'' (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the ''buddhi'' (intelligence), which is an attribute of the ''atma'' (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as ''jnanotpatti'' (manifestation of knowledge). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is refered in the verse 45 as ''ekatva'' (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called ''samanya'' which helps us to understand similarity (''samanyam ekatvakaram''). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle ''vishesha'' due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (''prithaktvakrita''). This is the brief essence of the principle of ''Samanya-vishesha''. This concept is also found in ''vaisheshika darshana'' (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but Ayurveda has applied this concept in practice.
 * Continuous use of ''dravya'', ''guna'' or ''karma'' which are similar to the body constituents, results in the increase of them. Whereas, continuous use of dissimilar ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'', result in the decrease of them/ e.g. eating the meat of animals causes an increase in the content of muscle tissue in the human body (''dravya samanya''). But not only this, eating of other food articles like ''masha'' (black gram) also results in an increase of muscle tissue. This happens because of the properties present in ''masha'' like ''guru'', ''picchila'', ''sthira'' etc. are similar to that of muscle tissue, although muscle tissue and black gram are different materials (''guna samanya''). Also, activities like rest and proper sleep induce similar properties like sthira, guru etc. which help in increase in muscle tissue (''Karma samanya'').
 * These effects on the body of ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' having ''samanya'' and ''vishesha'' can be exerted only when they are applied directly to the body (''pravrittih ubhayasya''). Also when we use any ''dravya, guna'' or ''karma, samanya'' and ''vishesha'' both come to action, with respect to different body constituents. E.g. ''Maricha'' (black pepper) decreases ''kapha'' and ''vata'', but at the same time increases ''pitta''. While using food or medicines, we must understand that it will be favorable to certain body constituents, but at the same time it will be unfavorable to other constituents (''ubhayasya pravrittih''). The effects are like double edged sword. By keeping this in mind one should make appropriate use of food or medicines.
 ====Basic elements:====
 All the objects can be classified as animate and inanimate. The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of ''atma'' (soul) in specific objects. Because ''atma'' is described as ''vibhu'' (ubiquitous, i.e. present everywhere). But the presence of ''atma'' is manifested through sense organs. Therefore, presence or absence of ''indriya'' (sense organs) is taken as the base for classification of animate and inanimate objects. Sense organs here do not refer to only externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. ''Indriya'' are subtle and therefore imperceptible entities. Externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. are just their tools. E.g. plants do not exhibit external sensory organs like eyes etc., but they have all the sensations which are realised by subtle ''indriya'' present internally. It is significant to note that it was known to ancient Indians, and also to ''Ayurvedic'' physicians specially, that plants do possess sensations like photosensitivity, auditory, taste, olfactory and tactile sensation i.e. all five sensations [verse 48]
-* To acquire knowledge, a person interacts with the external world. For this purpose, he mainly makes use of his five senses. In other words, the vehicles of interaction between the internal and external world are the five senses. With this view point, the external world is composed of objects of our senses. In the words of Nobel laureate Sir James Jeans (in his book ‘The New Background of Science’), matter is that which is capable of originating objective sensations. Since there are five objects of senses, the worldly objects can be categorised into five groups. From where do these five categories originate? There must be five sources of origin of these fundamental elements, the five ''mahabhutas''. ''Bhuta'' (or ''bhoota'') means anything which exists or anything which has evolved. Since everything evolved from these five (''pancha''), they are referred as ''maha'' (great) ''bhuta''(element). ''Mahabhutas'' exist in purest unconjugated, further indivisible forms termed as ''tanmatra'' in the beginning of the evolution of the universe. But eventually, they combine with each other by means of specific phenomena to form ''mahabhutas'' and then several conjugations result in formation of worldly objects. Everything in the present universe is composed of all five ''mahabhutas''. Even the so called elementary particles are composed of them. Being so subtle they cannot be perceived physically. But their existence can be inferred by observing their functions. The theory of five ''mahabhutas'' is immensely important to understand [[Ayurveda]]. This theory is being studied presently worldwide. This would be evident from the fact that during 1990s, five international seminars were held on this concept of five ''mahabhutas'' by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts in India, in which eminent scientists from international arena participated and presented their papers. E.g. the ex-chief of Atomic Commission of India, Dr. Raja Ramanna, presented a paper on ‘''Chit-Achit'' and ''Ishwar''’.
+* To acquire knowledge, a person interacts with the external world. For this purpose, he mainly makes use of his five senses. In other words, the vehicles of interaction between the internal and external world are the five senses. With this view point, the external world is composed of objects of our senses. In the words of Nobel laureate Sir James Jeans (in his book ‘The New Background of Science’), matter is that which is capable of originating objective sensations. Since there are five objects of senses, the worldly objects can be categorised into five groups. From where do these five categories originate? There must be five sources of origin of these fundamental elements, the five ''mahabhutas''. ''Bhuta'' (or ''bhoota'') means anything which exists or anything which has evolved. Since everything evolved from these five (''pancha''), they are referred as ''maha'' (great) ''bhuta''(element). ''Mahabhutas'' exist in purest unconjugated, further indivisible forms termed as ''tanmatra'' in the beginning of the evolution of the universe. But eventually, they combine with each other by means of specific phenomena to form ''mahabhutas'' and then several conjugations result in formation of worldly objects. Everything in the present universe is composed of all five ''mahabhutas''. Even the so called elementary particles are composed of them. Being so subtle they cannot be perceived physically. But their existence can be inferred by observing their functions. The theory of five ''mahabhutas'' is immensely important to understand Ayurveda. This theory is being studied presently worldwide. This would be evident from the fact that during 1990s, five international seminars were held on this concept of five ''mahabhutas'' by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts in India, in which eminent scientists from international arena participated and presented their papers. E.g. the ex-chief of Atomic Commission of India, Dr. Raja Ramanna, presented a paper on ‘''Chit-Achit'' and ''Ishwar''’.
-* The composition of human body is studied in terms of ''mahabhutas''. ''Dosha- dhatu'' and ''mala'', which are the most important body constituents, are also composed of ''mahabhutas''. Every object in the present universe is composed of ''mahabhutas'', therefore can be used as medicine, if properly studied. The medicines therefore are administered considering their ''panchabhautika'' composition. In manufacturing of drugs also one has to understand the changes in terms of ''mahabhutas''. Thus the concept of five mahabhutas is a core fundamental concept is  applicable in every field of [[Ayurveda]].
+* The composition of human body is studied in terms of ''mahabhutas''. ''Dosha- dhatu'' and ''mala'', which are the most important body constituents, are also composed of ''mahabhutas''. Every object in the present universe is composed of ''mahabhutas'', therefore can be used as medicine, if properly studied. The medicines therefore are administered considering their ''panchabhautika'' composition. In manufacturing of drugs also one has to understand the changes in terms of ''mahabhutas''. Thus the concept of five mahabhutas is a core fundamental concept is  applicable in every field of Ayurveda.
 * All the activities in the living body are possible only in the presence of ''atma'' (soul). Also they are always in relation to ''dik'' (Orientation in space) and ''kala'' (season). The concept of space-time resembles with the concept of ''dik-kala''. Therefore ''atma- dik'' and ''kala'' are considered as ''nimitta karana'' (incidental cause) for every activity.
-* ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions)- ''Guna'' in [[Ayurveda]] are not studied in terms of physical or chemical properties of various objects, but in terms of their effects on the living body. E.g. a food article or a drug is called as ''guru''(heavy) not as per its mass or weight. But by its property to augment body tissues. ''Ruksha'' (dry) is that which dessicates.
+* ''Guna'' (basic properties/qualities) and ''karma'' (actions)- ''Guna'' in Ayurveda are not studied in terms of physical or chemical properties of various objects, but in terms of their effects on the living body. E.g. a food article or a drug is called as ''guru''(heavy) not as per its mass or weight. But by its property to augment body tissues. ''Ruksha'' (dry) is that which dessicates.
 * Out of the 41 ''guna'' mentioned here, ''shabda'' (sound), ''sparsha'' (touch), ''rupa'' (appearance- shape, colour, etc.), ''rasa'' (taste), ''gandha'' (smell) are termed as ''artha'', because they are the objects of senses. They are specialised characteristics of particular ''mahabhutas''. ''Guru'' etc. ''guna'' are in the form of 10 pairs of opposite characteristics. These are the ''guna'' present in the tissues of living body, therefore they are called as ''sharira'' (pertaining to body) ''guna''.  They are also present in the food articles and drugs. They manifest in an object, because of specific composition of ''mahabhutas''. Therefore, they are termed as ''bhautika'' (pertaining to ''bhutas''). ''Ichcha'' (desire), ''buddhi'' (including intellect, power of resolution, memory, awareness, sense of ego), ''dvesha'' (hatred), ''sukha'' (pleasure), ''dukkha'' (pain), and ''prayatna'' (effort) are six ''guna'' that are termed as ''atma guna'' (attributes of soul). ''Para'' and ten other properties are very much important in formulating treatment, hence termed as ''chikitsya guna''.
 * ''Atma'' (soul) is ubiquitous. ''Prayatna'' (effort) is described as an attribute of ''atma''. An action is initiated in the presence of ''atma''. It is said that the attribute ''prayatna'' (effort) provides initiation for the action. The term ''karma'' is also used in different other sense elsewhere. E.g. it refers to [[Panchakarma]] (five specific therapies for purification of the body) and ''purvakarma'' (previous deeds of a person). To differentiate the term ''karma'' here, the word ''cheshtitam'' is used. By using the word, it is clarified that here this word is used in the sense of movements.
 * ''Samavaya'' (Inseparable concomitance)- ''Samavaya''  is the inherent inseparable concomitance of ''prithvi'' etc. (''dravya)'' with their ''guṇas'' (properties) and ''karma'' (actions).  This relationship is inseparable, because ''dravya'' and ''guna-karma'' evolve together. If a ''dravya'' is destroyed, ''guna-karma'' cannot exist and vice a versa. ''Dravya, guna-karma'' evolve and get destroyed, and are replaced by newer ones, but their relationship never changes. Whenever a ''dravya'' exists, it is never devoid of ''guna-karma''. In this sense, it is said that ''samavaya'' is eternal. Out of the six categories of existants, ''dravya, guna'' and ''karma'' actually exist. But if their mutual relationship is not there, none of them can exist. Therefore, ''samavaya'' is the base of existance for everything. [ verse 50]
 ====''Dosha:''====
-The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three ''doshas''. [[Ayurveda]] studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three ''doshas''. This system of three ''doshas'', is very important practically for each physician. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successfull treatment. While a physician having in depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three ''doshas'' i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand [[Ayurveda]].
+The present universe is composed of five ''mahabhutas''. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five ''mahabhutas'' form three groups. Functions of ''prithvi'' and ''apa'' are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way ''akasha'' and ''vayu'' form a group. ''Agni'' keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as ''visarga''(producing/creating), ''adana''(reducing/taking away) and ''vikshepa''(moving). These activities are performed by the group of ''prithvi''- ''apa, agni'' and ''akasha-vayu'' respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are ''Soma'' (''Chandra'' or Moon)- ''Surya'' (''Agni'', fire or Sun) and ''Anila'' (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of ''Soma-Surya-Anila''. They are called as ''kapha, pitta'' and ''vata'' respectively. They are called as the three ''doshas''. Ayurveda studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three ''doshas''. This system of three ''doshas'', is very important practically for each physician. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successfull treatment. While a physician having in depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three ''doshas'' i.e. ''Tridosha'' is very much important to understand Ayurveda.
-====''Rasa'' [taste sensations]====
+====''Rasa'' [taste sensations]:====
 Every ''dravya'' in the present universe is composed of specific mode of conjugation of all five ''mahabhutas''. ''Rasa'' (taste) is a specialized property of ''apa mahabhuta''. When ''apa mahabhuta'' is in ''tanmatra'' (purest unconjugated form) state, it does not possess taste. When it comes in contact with ''prithvi'', the taste is formed.   The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to combination of other three ''mahabhuta'' like ''akasha, vayu'' and ''tejas''. [verse 64]
@@ Line 2,499: / Line 2,248: @@
 * ''Dhatu pradushana'' (vitiating ''dhatu''): There are some substances which by their very nature harm the body e.g. ''mandaka dadhi'' (immature curd/yogurt), slow and acute poisons etc.
 * ''Swasthavrittahita'' (maintaining health): The substances which help in maintaining, promotion and preservation of the health of the healthy persons are ''swasthavratta hitakara''.  ''Rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'' as well as daily and seasonal regimens etc. are belonging to this group. Red rice, old rice, wheat, barley, green gram etc are good for daily use to maintain and promote health. The primary function of the substances under this category is to maintain the equilibrium of the ''dosha'' so that they are neither increased/aggravated nor decreased. Thus they help normal functioning of the body.  [verse 67]
-* [[Ayurveda]] in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as ''bhavana'' (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat ''ama'' conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical [[Ayurveda]] does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.
+* Ayurveda in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as ''bhavana'' (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat ''ama'' conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical Ayurveda does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.
 * ''Samalah'' indicates byproducts such as bitumen. Salt, minerals and alkaline products obtained from earth are also included in this group. Minerals and metals obtained from earth are first subjected to purification and then converting to nano particles (''bhasma'') by the various methods described separately for each product. The metals are subjected to anaerobic incinerating processes to convert it into ''bhasma'' which is nano form of the metal. Thus the earth-products becomes free from side effects of the gross metal and very potent and cures many diseases when administered with specific decoctions. It also reduces the bulk of doses of the herbal substances when mixed with these ''bhasma''. (Verse 70).
 * Plant origin drugs are classified in four groups viz. ''vanaspati'' (direct fruiters), ''virudha'' (creepers), ''vanaspatya'' (flower-based fruiters) and ''aushadhi'' (herbs).
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 * Physician should use only those drugs which are well known from every aspect (pharmacological effect). The unknown drug may act as poison and kill the patient. Therefore, if a physician knows all the three aspects viz., names, forms and properties of drugs can treat the patients successfully. Hence the patient should not take medicine from pseudo-physicians and similarly a physician should not prescribe a drug which is not well known (124-133).
 * Correct drug and knowledgeable physician are the first two important pillars of successful treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to know the qualities of correct medicine and a good physician. The drugs having all the requisite properties and actions required for cure a particular disease is considered as the proper drug. For a good physician, it is necessary to have all the knowledge of the principles underlying the correct application of medicines. Sometimes a randomly prescribed medicine by a pseudo physician also succeed in alleviating a disease and in that case the credit is not his but it is just accidental. Thus, only that physician is best who has proficiency in the principle governing the use of drug, knows all the aspects of the medicine to select and thus has the capability of curing the diseases (134).
-* [[Ayurveda]] has a very scientific principle of ''karya-karana vada'' which says every action (''karya'') has its specific cause (''karana''). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the physician is proficient in [[Ayurveda]] and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in ''Khuddaka chatushpada'' (Charak Sutra l0/ 6) (135)
+* Ayurveda has a very scientific principle of ''karya-karana vada'' which says every action (''karya'') has its specific cause (''karana''). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the physician is proficient in Ayurveda and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in ''Khuddaka chatushpada'' (Charak Sutra l0/ 6) (135)
 * All over the world, plants are recognized by their scientific names (in Latin, mostly), and hence generally accepted Latin names of plants mentioned in this chapter are given here to facilitate their wide understanding.
 </div>
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 #Sattwa - Mind
 #Atman- Conscious element in the living being(soul)
-#[[Ayurveda]]watarana- Evolution of [[Ayurveda]] on the earth
+#Ayurvedawatarana- Evolution of Ayurveda on the earth
 #abhyañjana (अभ्यञ्जन): massage
 #añjana (अञ्जन): antimony
@@ Line 2,611: / Line 2,360: @@
 #sudhā (सुधा): lime
 #śuṅgāḥ (शुङ्गाः): off-shoots
 ===References===
-[[Category:Sutra Sthana]]
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