Charak Samhita

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== Botanical Profile & Traditional Context ==
In traditional Indian medicine, Chandana is categorized primarily as a *Sheeta* (cooling) and *Pittahara* (Pitta-pacifying) dravya. Its historical utility spans dermatology, management of systemic inflammatory conditions, internal hemorrhages, and the alleviation of mental stress and burning sensations.


== Synonyms in Charak Samhita==
== Synonyms in Charak Samhita==
Sweta Chandana, Bhadrashree (impart beauty to one who use), Shrikhanda, Gandhasara (has good aroma), Malayaj (grow in malay region)
* Sweta Chandana
* Bhadrashree (impart beauty to one who use)
* Shrikhanda  
* Gandhasara (has good aroma)
* Malayaj (grow in malay region)


==Additional Synonyms in Bhavaprakasha Nighantu==
==Additional Synonyms in Bhavaprakasha Nighantu==
Tailaparnika, chandradhuti (has cooling effect like that of moon rays)<ref name="Bhavaprakasha">Shri Krishnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakasha Nighantu, Karpuradi Varga, Verse no. 11, Edited by Dr. Ganga Sahay Pandey, Reprint Edition, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, 2020; p. 235</ref>
* Tailaparnika,
* chandradhuti (has cooling effect like that of moon rays)<ref name="Bhavaprakasha">Shri Krishnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakasha Nighantu, Karpuradi Varga, Verse no. 11, Edited by Dr. Ganga Sahay Pandey, Reprint Edition, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, 2020; p. 235</ref>


== Ayurvedic pharmacological properties ==  
== Ayurvedic pharmacological properties ==  
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== Phytochemical Composition ==
== Phytochemical Composition ==
The unique aromatic fragrance and broad therapeutic efficacy of ''Santalum album'' stem from its rich secondary metabolite spectrum found within the heartwood:
The unique aromatic fragrance and broad therapeutic efficacy of ''Santalum album'' stem from its rich secondary metabolite spectrum found within the heartwood:
* '''Volatile Sesquiterpenes:''' Highly concentrated in essential oils, predominantly containing $\alpha$-santalol and $\beta$-santalol.
* '''Volatile Sesquiterpenes:''' Highly concentrated in essential oils, predominantly containing $\alpha$-santalol and $\beta$-santalol; ''cis''-$\alpha$-santalol is the major sesquiterpene alcohol, followed by ''cis''-$\beta$-santalol, with other compounds in lesser quantities.<ref name="Subasinghe2013"/>
* '''Other Terpenoids:''' Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons such as epi-$\beta$-santalol, lanceol, and turmerone derivatives.
* '''Polyphenolic Constituents:''' Phenolics, terpenoids, saponins and flavan-3-ols were the major constituents reported in an in vitro callus extract, indicating antioxidant potential (data are from callus culture, not heartwood).<ref name="MisraDey2012JPP"/>
* '''Polyphenolic Constituents:''' Tannins and flavonoids providing notable antioxidant capabilities.


== Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy ==
== Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy ==
=== Anti-inflammatory and Antipyretic Properties ===
=== Anti-inflammatory Properties ===
Chandana is classically recognized as a premier coolant (*Dahaprashamana*) and is scientifically validated for managing systemic inflammatory responses and elevated body temperatures.
Chandana is classically recognized as a premier coolant (*Dahaprashamana*) and has shown anti-inflammatory activity in experimental skin-cell models.
* '''Mechanism:''' Active sesquiterpenes suppress inflammatory cascades by downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines and reducing lipid peroxidation.
* '''Mechanism:''' Sandalwood oils and purified $\alpha$-santalol and $\beta$-santalol suppress the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Preclinical studies indicate that sandalwood extracts significantly reduce acute and chronic swelling and modulate thermal response parameters in animal models <ref name="Moyob2007"/>.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' In co-cultured human dermal fibroblasts and keratinocytes stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, sandalwood oils and purified $\alpha$-santalol and $\beta$-santalol reduced cytokine/chemokine production (in vitro).<ref name="Sharma2014"/>
 
=== Anti-inflammatory Skin Disease (Eczema and Psoriasis) ===
In alignment with its traditional use in skin disorders, sandalwood oil has been studied in inflammatory skin disease.
* '''Mechanism:''' East Indian sandalwood oil suppressed phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity, PDE4 and PDE7 transcript levels and NF-$\kappa$B activation in stimulated human cell lines.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Treatment of a psoriasis model reduced PDE4 expression and reversed histopathology, and 75% of paediatric eczema/atopic dermatitis patients treated with topical sandalwood oil formulations achieved a >50% reduction in Eczema Area and Severity Index (EASI) score; the clinical data are early-stage and need confirmation in controlled trials.<ref name="Sharma2018"/>
 
=== Antibacterial Actions ===
In alignment with its traditional classification under *Kandughna* and *Varnya* Mahakashayas, ''Santalum album'' has been tested for antibacterial activity.
* '''Mechanism:''' Extracts are rich in terpenoids, saponins, phenolics and tannins, which are considered to contribute to the activity.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Extracts of callus, somatic embryo, seedlings and leaves screened against thirteen bacterial strains showed antibacterial activity; somatic embryo extract was strongest and comparable with sandalwood oil (in vitro; non-heartwood extracts).<ref name="MisraDey2012LAM"/>
 
=== Neuro-physiological (Relaxing) Effects ===
Traditional aromatherapy and topical applications are associated with soothing effects.
* '''Mechanism:''' Not established; the study reported autonomic (physiological) changes after absorption through the skin.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' In a randomised study in healthy volunteers, transdermal $\alpha$-santalol caused physiological changes interpreted as relaxing/sedative, while sandalwood oil produced physiological deactivation with behavioural activation (inhalation was excluded by breathing masks).<ref name="Hongratanaworakit2004"/>


=== Antimicrobial and Dermal Healing Actions ===
=== Anti-hyperglycaemic and Antioxidant Effects ===
In alignment with its traditional classification under *Kandughna* and *Varnya* Mahakashayas, *Santalum album* exhibits marked efficacy against dermatological pathogens and surface lesions.
Relevant to the classical use of Chandana in *Prameha* (diabetes), as listed in the Charak Samhita table above.
* '''Mechanism:''' The active essential oils and tannins precipitate microbial membrane proteins, impairing integrity and preventing pathogenic colonization or biofilm creation.
* '''Mechanism:''' Modulation of antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation was observed alongside improved glycaemic parameters.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Laboratory evaluations confirm potent inhibitory activity against common bacterial strains and dermatophytes responsible for cutaneous infections and pruritus.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' In alloxan-induced diabetic mice, intraperitoneal $\alpha$-santalol (100 mg/kg) and sandalwood oil (1 g/kg) for one week brought blood glucose, body weight, liver glycogen and lipid peroxides towards normal; similar treatment in D-galactose-induced oxidative stress modulated liver enzymes, superoxide dismutase and catalase (animal data).<ref name="MisraDey2013"/>


=== Neuroprotective and Anxiolytic Effects ===
=== Anticancer (Chemopreventive) Effects ===
Traditional aromatherapy and internal applications demonstrate prominent central nervous system soothing effects.
* '''Mechanism:''' Induction of cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in cancer cells is the most reported mechanism of $\alpha$-santalol.
* '''Mechanism:''' Bioactive volatile components cross the blood-brain barrier to modulate neurotransmitter receptors, helping reduce oxidative stress markers in brain tissues.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Cell-line and animal studies report chemopreventive effects of sandalwood oil and $\alpha$-santalol in skin carcinogenesis in mice and in melanoma, non-melanoma, breast and prostate cancer models; no clinical efficacy has been demonstrated.<ref name="Santha2015"/>
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Investigations on human and animal subjects show that inhalation or administration of sandalwood oil lowers autonomic arousal parameters, reduces systolic blood pressure, and induces calm physiological states <ref name="Kuroda2005"/>.


== Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage ==
== Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage ==
* '''Toxicity Profile:''' *Santalum album* exhibits a high margin of safety in standard culinary, topical, and therapeutic doses. Acute toxicity profiles show minimal adverse risks under standard usage conditions.
* '''Toxicity Profile:''' Sandalwood oil and its major constituent have low acute oral and dermal toxicity in laboratory animals; available toxicity data are limited, and the oil is considered safe at present use levels.<ref name="Burdock2008"/>
* '''Precautions:''' Concentrated pure essential oils should be properly diluted with carrier oils prior to direct topical application to avoid skin sensitivity or local irritation.
* '''Precautions:''' Occasional irritation or sensitisation reactions to sandalwood oil have been reported in humans; concentrated essential oil should not be applied undiluted on skin.
* '''Standard Therapeutic Dosage:'''  
* '''Standard Therapeutic Dosage:'''  
** *Heartwood Powder (Churna):* 3–6 g daily taken with honey, warm water, or appropriate vehicle (*anupana*).
** *Heartwood Powder (Churna):* 3–6 g, as per the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (see Dose above).
** *Decoction (Kwatha):* 50–100 mL split into standard doses.


== Summary of Therapeutic Profile ==
== Summary of Therapeutic Profile ==
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! Primary Pharmacological Action
! Primary Pharmacological Action
|-
|-
| '''Burning Sensation & Fever (Daha / Jwara)'''
| '''Inflammation and Burning Sensation (Daha)'''
| $\alpha$-santalol, $\beta$-santalol
| $\alpha$-santalol, $\beta$-santalol
| Sheeta veerya coolant, Anti-inflammatory
| Sheeta veerya coolant, suppression of cytokines/chemokines
|-
| '''Eczema, Psoriasis (Kushta / Kandu)'''
| Sandalwood oil sesquiterpenes
| PDE and NF-$\kappa$B suppression, anti-inflammatory
|-
| '''Bacterial Infection'''
| Terpenoids, saponins, phenolics, tannins
| Antibacterial (in vitro)
|-
|-
| '''Skin Disorders & Pruritus (Kushta / Kandu)'''
| '''Stress / Autonomic Regulation'''
| Sesquiterpenes, Tannins
| $\alpha$-santalol
| Antimicrobial, Antipruritic topical action
| Relaxing/sedative physiological effects (transdermal)
|-
|-
| '''Anxiety & Neurological Stress'''
| '''Diabetes (Prameha) and Oxidative Stress'''
| Volatile sesquiterpene oils
| $\alpha$-santalol, sandalwood oil
| CNS relaxation, Anxiolytic modulation
| Anti-hyperglycaemic, antioxidant (animal)
|-
|-
| '''Urinary Tract Discomfort (Prameha)'''
| '''Cancer Chemoprevention'''
| Phenolic constituents
| $\alpha$-santalol
| Antimicrobial, Mild diuretic action
| Cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis (preclinical)
|}
|}


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<ref name="API">Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume III:93</ref>
<ref name="API">Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume III:93</ref>
<ref name="Bhavaprakasha">Shri Krishnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakasha Nighantu, Karpuradi Varga, Verse no. 11, Edited by Dr. Ganga Sahay Pandey, Reprint Edition, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, 2020; p. 235</ref>
<ref name="Bhavaprakasha">Shri Krishnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakasha Nighantu, Karpuradi Varga, Verse no. 11, Edited by Dr. Ganga Sahay Pandey, Reprint Edition, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, 2020; p. 235</ref>
<ref name="Kuroda2005">{{cite journal |last1=Kuroda |first1=K. |last2=Inoue |first2=S. |last3=Nomura |first3=S. |last4=Nagashima |first4=H. |year=2005 |title=Sedative effects of the sandalwood oil and alpha-santalol on humans after inhalation |journal=Journal of Aromatherapy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=25–32}}</ref>
<ref name="Subasinghe2013">{{cite journal |last1=Subasinghe |first1=U. |last2=Gamage |first2=M. |last3=Hettiarachchi |first3=D.S. |year=2013 |title=Essential oil content and composition of Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) in Sri Lanka |journal=Journal of Forestry Research |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=127–130 |doi=10.1007/s11676-013-0331-3}}</ref>
<ref name="Moyob2007">{{cite journal |last1=Moyob |first1=D. |last2=Bansal |first2=P. |year=2007 |title=Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of Santalum album extracts |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=113 |issue=2 |pages=315–320}}</ref>
<ref name="MisraDey2012JPP">{{cite journal |last1=Misra |first1=B.B. |last2=Dey |first2=S. |year=2012 |title=Phytochemical analyses and evaluation of antioxidant efficacy of in vitro callus extract of East Indian sandalwood tree (Santalum album L.) |journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–16}}</ref>
<ref name="Sharma2014">{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=M. |last2=Levenson |first2=C. |display-authors=etal |year=2014 |title=Suppression of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated cytokine/chemokine production in skin cells by sandalwood oils and purified α-santalol and β-santalol |journal=Phytotherapy Research |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=925–932}}</ref>
<ref name="Sharma2018">{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=M. |last2=Levenson |first2=C. |last3=Browning |first3=J.C. |last4=Becker |first4=E.M. |last5=Clements |first5=I. |last6=Castella |first6=P. |last7=Cox |first7=M.E. |year=2018 |title=East Indian sandalwood oil is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor: a new therapeutic option in the treatment of inflammatory skin disease |journal=Frontiers in Pharmacology |volume=9 |pages=200 |doi=10.3389/fphar.2018.00200}}</ref>
<ref name="MisraDey2012LAM">{{cite journal |last1=Misra |first1=B.B. |last2=Dey |first2=S. |year=2012 |title=Comparative phytochemical analysis and antibacterial efficacy of in vitro and in vivo extracts from East Indian sandalwood tree (Santalum album L.) |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=476–486}}</ref>
<ref name="Hongratanaworakit2004">{{cite journal |last1=Hongratanaworakit |first1=T. |last2=Heuberger |first2=E. |last3=Buchbauer |first3=G. |year=2004 |title=Evaluation of the effects of East Indian sandalwood oil and α-santalol on humans after transdermal absorption |journal=Planta Medica |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=3–7 |doi=10.1055/s-2004-815446}}</ref>
<ref name="MisraDey2013">{{cite journal |last1=Misra |first1=B.B. |last2=Dey |first2=S. |year=2013 |title=Evaluation of in vivo anti-hyperglycemic and antioxidant potentials of α-santalol and sandalwood oil |journal=Phytomedicine |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=409–416 |doi=10.1016/j.phymed.2012.12.017}}</ref>
<ref name="Santha2015">{{cite journal |last1=Santha |first1=S. |last2=Dwivedi |first2=C. |year=2015 |title=Anticancer effects of sandalwood (Santalum album) |journal=Anticancer Research |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=3137–3145}}</ref>
<ref name="Burdock2008">{{cite journal |last1=Burdock |first1=G.A. |last2=Carabin |first2=I.G. |year=2008 |title=Safety assessment of sandalwood oil (Santalum album L.) |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=421–432 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.092}}</ref>
}}
}}


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