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|label2 = Authors

|label2 = Authors

|data2 = Anagha S., Deole Y.S.

|data2 = Deole Y.S., Anagha S.  

|label3 = Reviewer and Editor

|label3 = Reviewer and Editor

|label6 = Date of first publication:

|label6 = Date of first publication:

|data6 = March 27, 2021

|data6 = March 27, 2021

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|data7 = Awaited

 

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==Literal meaning==

== Literal meaning ==

 

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In Sanskrit, ‘prajnaparadha ’ is formed by the combination of two words, ‘prajna’ (intellect) and ‘aparadha’ (offense/fault/error). The Sanskrit word prajna is derived from the word root “jna” by adding the prefix-“pra” which denotes superior knowledge or intelligence. It means judgment, distinguishing capacity, discrimination etc.<ref>Jha Srujan. Amarkosha online application</ref>   

In Sanskrit, ‘prajnaparadha ’ is formed by the combination of two words, ‘prajna’ (intellect) and ‘aparadha’ (offense/fault/error). The Sanskrit word prajna is derived from the word root “jna” by adding the prefix-“pra” which denotes superior knowledge or intelligence. It means judgment, distinguishing capacity, discrimination etc.<ref>Jha Srujan. Amarkosha online application</ref>   

Thus, the term 'prajnaparadha ' means intellectual error. (SAT-J.49) This leads to indulgence in harmful activities and diseases. (SAT-C.76)<ref>Available from  http://namstp.ayush.gov.in/#/sat</ref>

Thus, the term 'prajnaparadha ' means intellectual error. (SAT-J.49) This leads to indulgence in harmful activities and diseases. (SAT-C.76)<ref>Available from  http://namstp.ayush.gov.in/#/sat</ref>

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==Definition and importance==

 

=== Definition and importance ===

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*Wrong deeds done on account of the impairment of intellect, wisdom, and memory, leading to the aggravation of all [[dosha]] is collectively known as ‘intellectual error (prajnaparadha )’. [Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 1/102]

*Wrong deeds done on account of the impairment of intellect, wisdom, and memory, leading to the aggravation of all [[dosha]] is collectively known as ‘intellectual error (prajnaparadha )’. [Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 1/102]

The root cause of all kinds of epidemics is mentioned as “unrighteousness” (adharma) which is born out of intellectual error. [Cha. Sa. [[Vimana Sthana ]] 3/20]

The root cause of all kinds of epidemics is mentioned as “unrighteousness” (adharma) which is born out of intellectual error. [Cha. Sa. [[Vimana Sthana ]] 3/20]

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==Sub-domains of intellectual defect==

=== Sub-domains of intellectual defect ===

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The three domains involved in normal functioning of intellect are dhi (intelligence), dhriti (restraint) and smriti (memory).Any error in these three faculties can lead to intellectual defect or error. The error is termed as ‘vibhramsha’ or a specific defect.

The three domains involved in normal functioning of intellect are dhi (intelligence), dhriti (restraint) and smriti (memory).Any error in these three faculties can lead to intellectual defect or error. The error is termed as ‘vibhramsha’ or a specific defect.

    

    

'''a)Defective comprehension (dhi vibhramsha)''' (SAT-A.196): Intelligence (dhi) has the power of understanding or comprehension. Incorrect comprehension or knowledge occurs due to defective intelligence. The intellect judges the beneficial as non-beneficial and vice versa. If something eternal is viewed as ephemeral and something harmful as useful, and vice versa, this is indicative of the impairment of intellect. For, the normal intellect views things as they are. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/99]

==== a)Defective comprehension (dhi vibhramsha)(SAT-A.196) ====

'''b)Defective restraint (dhriti vibramsha)''' (SAT-A.197): Restraint (dhriti) is the power of retention/ resolution, stability or control over intellectual functions. The ideal control of the intellect keeps the mind and the sense organs away from harmful things. When this control is lost, the person indulges in harmful things. Addictions to alcohol, smoking, etc. are the result of this kind of error. The mind indulging in worldly enjoyments cannot be restrained from harmful objects due to the impairment of dhriti (controlling power). Dhriti that can restrain the mind (from its harmful objects). [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]]1/100]

Intelligence (dhi) has the power of understanding or comprehension. Incorrect comprehension or knowledge occurs due to defective intelligence. The intellect judges the beneficial as non-beneficial and vice versa. If something eternal is viewed as ephemeral and something harmful as useful, and vice versa, this is indicative of the impairment of intellect. For, the normal intellect views things as they are. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/99]

'''c)Defective recall or memory (smriti vibramsha)''' (SAT-A.198): Remembrance of things that are directly seen, heard (scriptures) or experienced is memory. In practical life, memory reminds the person to the decision of intellect about harmful or beneficial things. If the memory is impaired due to a person being overcome by rajas and tamas, the recollection of knowledge of reality or self is impaired. This is known as the impairment of smriti. Normally smriti contains everything memorable. Thus, the person indulges in wrong or harmful things. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/101]

==== b)Defective restraint (dhriti vibramsha)(SAT-A.197)====

Actions induced by intellectual defect:

 

 

 

=== Actions induced by intellectual defect ===

A person indulged in various wrong or harmful actions that can cause disease are as follows:  

A person indulged in various wrong or harmful actions that can cause disease are as follows:  

The intellectual defect leads to impairment of mind, sense organs. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/109] Thus it is a major cause of psychiatric and cognitive disorders.   

The intellectual defect leads to impairment of mind, sense organs. [Cha.Sa.[[Sharira Sthana]] 1/109] Thus it is a major cause of psychiatric and cognitive disorders.   

'''Contemporary views:'''

== Contemporary views ==

According to contemporary views, cognitive distortions are negatively biased errors in thinking which increase the vulnerability to various mental disorders like depression.<ref>Dozois, D. J. A., & Beck, A. T. (2008). Cognitive schemas, beliefs and assumptions. In K. S. Dobson & D. J. A. Dozois (Eds.), Risk factors in depression (pp. 121-143).</ref>

According to contemporary views, cognitive distortions are negatively biased errors in thinking which increase the vulnerability to various mental disorders like depression.<ref>Dozois, D. J. A., & Beck, A. T. (2008). Cognitive schemas, beliefs and assumptions. In K. S. Dobson & D. J. A. Dozois (Eds.), Risk factors in depression (pp. 121-143).</ref>

Cognitive errors may occur with different frequencies across social and achievement domains, particularly depending on the content of an individual’s core beliefs.<ref>Clark, D. A., Beck, A. T., & Alford, B. A. (1999). Scientific foundations of cognitive theory and therapy of depression. New York, NY, USA: Wiley.</ref>  

Cognitive errors may occur with different frequencies across social and achievement domains, particularly depending on the content of an individual’s core beliefs.<ref>Clark, D. A., Beck, A. T., & Alford, B. A. (1999). Scientific foundations of cognitive theory and therapy of depression. New York, NY, USA: Wiley.</ref>  

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=== Three types of indulgence===

=== Three types of indulgence===

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c) Improper functioning (mithyayoga): Any activity that is done in a way other than the wholesome/ recommended manner.

c) Improper functioning (mithyayoga): Any activity that is done in a way other than the wholesome/ recommended manner.

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===Three types of actions===

===Three types of actions===

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The three types of activities are assessed for intellectual defect as follows:  

The three types of activities are assessed for intellectual defect as follows:  

c) Mental (manasika): related to thoughts

c) Mental (manasika): related to thoughts

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==Importance in diagnosis ==  

 

== Importance in diagnosis ==

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Intellectual error (prajnaparadha) is mentioned as the main causative factor for psychosis (unmada).[Cha. Sa. [[Nidana Sthana]] 7/10]

Intellectual error (prajnaparadha) is mentioned as the main causative factor for psychosis (unmada).[Cha. Sa. [[Nidana Sthana]] 7/10]

If the memory is impaired as in intellectual defects, it can adversely influence the effect of therapy.

If the memory is impaired as in intellectual defects, it can adversely influence the effect of therapy.

    

    

'''The intellectual error of physician:'''

=== The intellectual error of physician ===

Misdiagnosis or mismanagement of disease can occur due to the intellectual error of a physician. This can lead to iatrogenic errors. To know the prognosis of a disease condition, signs of good and bad prognosis are observed. An ignorant physician may sometimes wrongly perceive some symptoms as fatal signs (arishta lakshana) and sometimes he may not even recognize the evident fatal signs (arishta lakshana) in the patient and act accordingly. All these are the result of intellectual errors. [Cha. Sa. [[Indriya Sthana]] 2/6]

Misdiagnosis or mismanagement of disease can occur due to the intellectual error of a physician. This can lead to iatrogenic errors. To know the prognosis of a disease condition, signs of good and bad prognosis are observed. An ignorant physician may sometimes wrongly perceive some symptoms as fatal signs (arishta lakshana) and sometimes he may not even recognize the evident fatal signs (arishta lakshana) in the patient and act accordingly. All these are the result of intellectual errors. [Cha. Sa. [[Indriya Sthana]] 2/6]

Cognitive errors are considered as one of the diagnostic errors which is an important concern regarding patient safety. They are mainly associated with failures in perception, failed heuristics, and biases. These are collectively known as cognitive dispositions to respond (CDRs).<ref>Croskerry, Pat MD, PhD The Importance of Cognitive Errors in Diagnosis and Strategies to Minimize Them, Academic Medicine: August 2003 - Volume 78 - Issue 8 - p 775-780</ref>

Cognitive errors are considered as one of the diagnostic errors which is an important concern regarding patient safety. They are mainly associated with failures in perception, failed heuristics, and biases. These are collectively known as cognitive dispositions to respond (CDRs).<ref>Croskerry, Pat MD, PhD The Importance of Cognitive Errors in Diagnosis and Strategies to Minimize Them, Academic Medicine: August 2003 - Volume 78 - Issue 8 - p 775-780</ref>

==Importance in management of disease ==

== Importance in management of disease ==

Intellectual errors (prajnaparadha) can provoke all [[dosha]] in the body. It is crucial to remove the intellectual errors in disease management and regaining health. In the management of psychological defects (manasa dosha), measures promoting knowledge of self (jnana), scientific knowledge (vijnana), restraint (dhairya), memory (smriti), and concentration (samadhi) are advised. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 1/58]  

Intellectual errors (prajnaparadha) can provoke all [[dosha]] in the body. It is crucial to remove the intellectual errors in disease management and regaining health. In the management of psychological defects (manasa dosha), measures promoting knowledge of self (jnana), scientific knowledge (vijnana), restraint (dhairya), memory (smriti), and concentration (samadhi) are advised. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 1/58]  

Among the three treatment modalities, psychotherapy (sattwavajaya) is mentioned as the withdrawal of the mind from harmful objects. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 11/54].  

Among the three treatment modalities, psychotherapy (sattwavajaya) is mentioned as the withdrawal of the mind from harmful objects. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 11/54].  

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==Importance in the preservation of health and prevention==

 

== Importance in the preservation of health and prevention ==

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All the mental disorders and emotions like jealousy, grief, fear, anger, egoism, hatred, etc. are born out of error in intellect. So, avoidance of such emotions, control over sense and motor organs, improving the memory power, maintain the specific orientation of place, time, and one’s own self, and following the regimen of good conduct are guidelines to prevent exogenous as well as psychological disorders. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 7/ 53]  

All the mental disorders and emotions like jealousy, grief, fear, anger, egoism, hatred, etc. are born out of error in intellect. So, avoidance of such emotions, control over sense and motor organs, improving the memory power, maintain the specific orientation of place, time, and one’s own self, and following the regimen of good conduct are guidelines to prevent exogenous as well as psychological disorders. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 7/ 53]  

The practice of Yoga and meditation is helpful for maintaining the different domains of intellect in their proper functioning.

The practice of Yoga and meditation is helpful for maintaining the different domains of intellect in their proper functioning.

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==Current researches==

 

== Current researches ==

 

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*In an observational study on 108 patients, it was found that the variety of external, occupational, social and familial factors play significant role in the pathology of premature ageing by disturbing the overall psychological status. The factors are influenced by intellectual errors (prajnaparadha). The link of mind-body relation with reference to contemporary concept of psycho-neuro endocrinology is established. <ref>Deole YS, Thakar AB, Chandola H, Ravishankar B. Observational study on external social and lifestyle related factors and their role in pathogenesis of premature ageing and stress. AYU [serial online] 2012 [cited 2021 Mar 24];33:378-86. Available from: https://www.ayujournal.org/text.asp?2012/33/3/378/108828</ref>   

*In an observational study on 108 patients, it was found that the variety of external, occupational, social and familial factors play significant role in the pathology of premature ageing by disturbing the overall psychological status. The factors are influenced by intellectual errors (prajnaparadha). The link of mind-body relation with reference to contemporary concept of psycho-neuro endocrinology is established. <ref>Deole YS, Thakar AB, Chandola H, Ravishankar B. Observational study on external social and lifestyle related factors and their role in pathogenesis of premature ageing and stress. AYU [serial online] 2012 [cited 2021 Mar 24];33:378-86. Available from: https://www.ayujournal.org/text.asp?2012/33/3/378/108828</ref>   

*Recent studies provide evidences showing the influence of yoga practices in improving cognitive functions.<ref>Brunner D, Abramovitch A, Etherton J. A yoga program for cognitive enhancement. PLoS One. 2017;12(8):e0182366. Published 2017 Aug 4. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182366</ref>   

*Recent studies provide evidences showing the influence of yoga practices in improving cognitive functions.<ref>Brunner D, Abramovitch A, Etherton J. A yoga program for cognitive enhancement. PLoS One. 2017;12(8):e0182366. Published 2017 Aug 4. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182366</ref>   

*A randomised clinical trial conducted in 30 patients of major depression showed additional improvement in cognitive functions in patients who practiced yoga and meditation in combination with conventional antidepressant medication. Additional improvement was observed in manipulation of information in the verbal working memory, attention span as well as visuo-motor speed of the depressives.<ref>Sharma VK, Das S, Mondal S, Goswami U, Gandhi A. Effect of Sahaj Yoga on neuro-cognitive functions in patients suffering from major depression. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2006 Oct-Dec;50(4):375-83. PMID: 17402267.</ref>  

*A randomized clinical trial conducted in 30 patients of major depression showed additional improvement in cognitive functions in patients who practiced yoga and meditation in combination with conventional antidepressant medication. Additional improvement was observed in manipulation of information in the verbal working memory, attention span as well as visuo-motor speed of the depressives.<ref>Sharma VK, Das S, Mondal S, Goswami U, Gandhi A. Effect of Sahaj Yoga on neuro-cognitive functions in patients suffering from major depression. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2006 Oct-Dec;50(4):375-83. PMID: 17402267.</ref>  

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==More information==

==More information==

[[Katidhapurusha Sharira]]

[[Naveganadharaniya Adhyaya]], [[Unmada Nidana]], [[Katidhapurusha Sharira]]

===Abbreviations===

===Abbreviations===

Hr. = Hridaya

SAT = Standard Ayurveda Terminology,  Cha. = Charak, Su. = Sushruta, Sa. = Samhita,  A. = Ashtanga,  Hr. = Hridaya,

==References==

==References==